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AN ESSAY

ON a

THE SYSTEMATIC TRAINING
OF THE BODY.

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BALLANTYNE AND HANSON, EDINBURGH
CHANDOS STREET, LONDON

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AN ESSAY

ON

THE SYSTEMATIC TRAINING
OF THE BODY.

BY

CHARLES HENRY SCHAIBLE, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.P.

PBOFESSOB IN THE BOYAL MILITABY ACADEMT, WOOLWICH J

EXAMINEE IN THE UNIVEBSITY OF LONDON J

MEMBEB OF COUNCIL IN THE COLLEGE OF PBBCEPTOES ;

ETC.

A Memorial Essay, published on the occasion of the
First Centenary Festival of

FRIEDRICH LTTDWIG JAHN.

WITH AN ETCHING BY HUBERT HERKOMER

. LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO, LUDGATE HILL.

1878.
All rights reserved.

ju/yjfc*

" Wherever you have a population generally weakly, stunted, scrofu-
lous, you will find in them a corresponding type of brain, which cannot
be trusted to do good work." — Canon Kingsley's Address, Birmingham
and Midland Institute, October 9, 1872.

" It is not a mind, not a body, that we have to educate ; it is a man,
of whom we are not to make two beings." — Montaigne.

" All those who have reflected on the manner of life of the ancients,
attribute to gymnastic exercises that symmetrical vigour of body and
soul which distinguishes them the most sensibly from the moderns. The
terms in which Montaigne supports this thesis show that he was
strongly convinced of its truth ; he repeats his arguments incessantly,

in a thousand ways The wise Locke, the good Rollin, the sage

Fleuiy, the pedant Le Crouzas, so different from each other in every-
thing else, are unanimous in this one opinion — that it is important to
train thoroughly the bodies of the young." — /. J. Rousseau, "Emile."

" As long as man here below has a body, as long as his earthly exist-
ence involves corporeal life, a life which, if it be without strength and
endurance, without skill and aptitude, will fade away into an empty
shadow, so long the art of gymnastics ought to occupy a principal place
in the education of mankind." — Gutsmuths.

"It is the intent of gymnastics to restore to our education that com-
pleteness which has been lost ; to add bodily training to one-sided mental
culture ; and to balance over-refinement by manliness regained." — Jahn.

" The body is the armour, the cuirass of the soul. Let it first be
hardened and tempered to steel." — «/". P. Richter.

JLJ.jtfjL&

TO
THE MEMOEY OF

FRIEDEICH LUDWIG JAHJST,

THE GREAT PROMOTER OF GYMNASTICS,

ON THE 100th ANNIVERSARY OP HIS BIRTHDAY,
TO THE

GERMAN GYMNASTIC SOCIETY IN LONDON,

BY A LAUREATE IN THE
NATIONAL GYMNASTIC FESTIVAL
AT HEILBRONN, 1846.

CONTENTS.

PAGB

Introductory Remarks ix

Biographical Sketch of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn . xiii

PART I.

HISTORICAL SKETCH OF GYMNASTICS.

I. Oriental Antiquity and Greece 3

II. The Greeks 7

the gymnasia 18

various purposes of greek gymnastics . . 21

military gymnastics 29

national games 30

decay of greek gymnastics 33

III. Romans — Middle Ages — Modern Times.

the romans 35

the ancient gauls, iberians, and germans . 40

gymnastics in the middle ages 43

gymnastics in modern times 48

character of modern gymnastics . . . 67
modern popular athletic exercises, games,

and sports 72

Conclusion 76

viii Contents.

PART IT.

ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION:

ITS NEGLECT, ITS BENEFITS, AND THE MEANS

FAVOURABLE TO ITS PROMOTION.

PAGB

Introduction, extracted from Dr. Parkes' "Personal

Care of Health" 82

I. Neglect of Physical Education 85

II. Co-operation of Body and Mind 93

III. Effects of Bodily Training on Physical,

Intellectual, and Moral Development . . 99

IV. Promotion of Physical Education 116

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The object of this little volume is the advancement of
physical education in schools. The book is therefore
addressed chiefly to teachers.

The first part of the Essay is intended to show the
important position held by physical education among
ancient nations, particularly among the Greeks; and
to point out that the rise and decay of their general
culture was intimately connected with the cultivation
or the neglect of corporeal training. This historical
sketch is, however, only an introduction to the second
part of the Essay, which treats of physical education
from a physiological point of view; and, its design
being chiefly that of substantiating and strengthening
the opinions expressed in this latter portion, I have
therefore not thought it necessary to give either great
extent or completeness of illustration to my historical
details.

The second part of the work was read as a lecture,
followed by discussion, at a meeting of the College
of Preceptors, in March, 1873, and appeared in the
April number of the Educational Times of the same
year. Its special aim was to direct the attention of

x Introductory Remarks.

teachers to the subject of which it treated ; and, un-
pretending as it was, yet it had the good result (partly-
aided, indeed, by a favourable review in the Bradford
Observer, 1873) of persuading the Governing Body
and the Head Master of the new Bradford Grammar
School to build, at the cost of 4000^., a gymnasium
in connexion with the school, and to make physical
education an essential part of the instruction given.
This success, in one of the most enlightened of the
manufacturing towns of Yorkshire, together with the
approval of the eminent Principal of one of the largest
and best schools in England, has encouraged me to re-
publish my original lecture, prefaced by the historical
sketch, in a form more accessible to wider circles of
readers.

The range of the subject is so extensive that it is
not possible, in so short a space, to do justice to it.
But to have treated it on a larger scale might pro-
bably have affected the practical usefulness of the
book.

The subject of physical education may be treated of
from various points of view — hygienic, pedagogical, and
technical. In this Essay I have dwelt chiefly upon the
hygienic branch of the subject. My chief purpose is,
to prove : —

1st. That there is urgent necessity for well-regulated
exercises in order to counteract the increasing enerva-
tion of modern society, and the dangers which our
present habits of life engender.

2nd. That by means of systematic exercises alone
can the great majority of boys and girls in the middle

Introductory Remarks. xi

and lower classes be trained in bodily and, consequently,
mental vigour, and — what is less generally acknow-
ledged— in habits of obedience and discipline. How
great is the value of systematic exercises I have had
ample opportunity of observing in many institutions of
this country, and especially, during more than sixteen
years, in the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Notwithstanding the hard studies of the cadets, in
preparation for five strict competitive examinations
during the course of two years and a half, there is no
institution in which the physique, the general health,
the mental and bodily vigour, and strict obedience to
discipline, are displayed to such perfection.

In no country of the world are bodily feats so highly
valued as in England, and in no country is there such
a vigorous race of young men in the higher strata
of society. Even the physical education of children
has, since Locke's time, been here in advance of that
which is found in other countries. Yet there is, even
in this country, ample room for improvement. In many
schools, indeed, exercises and sport are carried on to
excess. But the young people in by far the greater
number of schools, particularly those of the middle and
lower classes, are left without any physical training
whatever.

A short time ago, the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge published an admirable little manual " On
Personal Care of Health/' by the late lamented Dr.
Parkes. As the opinions of this writer, expressed in a
short but excellent chapter on " Exercise/' are almost
entirely in accordance with those advanced in my

xii Introductory Remarks.

Lecture above alluded to, I use the passage in which
they are contained, by way of introduction to the
second part of the present work ; feeling that the con-
clusions of a writer of such high authority must add
largely to the weight and influence of my own.

The manual of Dr. Parkes was passing through the
press when we were called upon to mourn the death of
its eminent author. His little manual may therefore
be looked upon as his last bequest — a legacy to be held
sacred by his fellow-countrymen.

I must here express my warmest thanks to Mr.
Hubert Herkomer, for the admirable likeness of Jahn,
etched by -the artist, which adds so much to the value
and interest of my little work.

C. H. SCHAIBLE.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

OF

FEIEDRICH LUDWIG JAHN.

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, the son of a Protestant
pastor, born August 1 13 1778, at Lanz, near Wittenberg,
was, in his time, one of the most popular men in Ger-
many. No other man ever exercised such an influence
over the German youths in colleges and universities,
or was so ardently worshipped by youthful disciples.

During the eventful years from 1796 to 1800, he
studied divinity in the University of Halle. Even at
this early date, from the age of eighteen, he appeared
as a reformer of German student life. He energetically
opposed the existing associations, called ' ' Landsmann-
schaften," the offspring of the ancient students' socie-
ties of the Middle Ages, with their time-honoured
abuses of idleness, drinking, and duelling ; and by his
opposition he exposed himself to great danger from the
ill-will of these societies. But his principles did not
yield. However, for the sake of safety, he lived for
some time in a cave, in the vicinity of Giebichenstein,
from which abode he used to go forth to attend the
lectures at the University. After completing his terms
at Halle, he studied, as is customary with German

B

xiv Biographical Sketch of

students., in various other universities ; among them, at
Gottingen. There he laid aside the study of theology,
and devoted- his attention to the German language and
literature, and published various works on the latter
subject.

In the year 1800, at the age of twenty-two, he came
forward as a political writer, by the publication of his
work " On the Promotion of Patriotism in the German
Empire." At the commencement of his attempt to
reform the social life of German university students,
he had founded the il Burschenschaft," in opposition to
the old societies. These latter, however, were protected
by the Governments of the time, which preferred, as it
would seem, that the students should devote their
leisure to a wild life of carousing and duelling ; while
the associations advocated by Jahn, which aimed both
at intellectual culture and national liberty, were before
long put under the ban. As the German students'
unions had all special colours of their own, Jahn chose
for his Burschenschaft the colours, afterwards so famous,
of " black, red, and gold," which became, and up to the
year 1848 were considered, the emblem of German
unity and liberty, and which have not even yet been
superseded, in the hearts of the German people, by the
new colours of the present empire — black, white, and
red.

During the period of Jahn's university life evil times
were threatening Germany, divided as the nation then
was into numerous and virtually independent States,
mostly ruled by princes devoid of German feeling for
nationality. The French armies were devastating the

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn. xv

country. The old empire, already in decay, fell into
ruins under the stroke of Napoleon. The French Em-
peror advanced against the Prussian army, and Jahn
hastened to join its ranks ; but he was too late to do
more than share its retreat. The battle of Jena (14th
October, 1806) had already decided the fate of Prussia
and of Germany. The Fatherland lay bleeding at the
feet of Napoleon.

But Jahn, like his friend Moritz Arndt, and thou-
sands more among his countrymen, would not yield to
despair. He laboured as a teacher in influential col-
leges, and was indefatigable as an author. In 18 10 he
published his work on "German Nationality" (Deutsches
Volksthum) ; and it was in the same year that he first
put in practice the plan of drilling large companies of
boys in gymnastic exercises. In 181 1 he opened, in
Berlin, on the " Hasenhaide," the gymnasium which
afterwards became so celebrated, and so important in
its results ; being, indeed, the Alma Mater of all the
gymnasia subsequently established in Germany, which
again in their turn gave rise to numerous others else-
where. Jahn was, moreover, the originator of the
well-known meetings or gatherings of the different
societies, at variously chosen places, for the purpose of
competition in their art ; and the German youths, by
their marches to join these gatherings, as well as by
their training in the gymnasia, were soon fitted to
meet the earnest conflict of real war which was before
long to call forth their energies.

When, in 18 13, Germany rose against Napoleon,
Jahn hastened to Breslau and joined the renowned

b2

xvi Biographical Sketch of

corps, known as " Liitzow's Jiiger," as commander of a
battalion. In 1814 he was appointed member of the
general commission entrusted with the equipment and
national enrolment of all Germany. In 18 15 he and
his corps took part in the entry of the allied armies
into Paris, where the celebrated statesman, Harden-
berg, consulted him with regard to the future organi-
sation of Germany.

When the independence of Germany had been se-
cured, Jahn devoted his special attention to public
lectures, and to the subject of Physical Education. In
18 16 appeared his famous work, " Deutsche Turnkunst"
(German Gymnastics).

But in no long time the German princes, forgetting
the extraordinary efforts made by the nation to re- seat
its rulers on their respective thrones, disregarded the
promises made in the hour of necessity to bestow free
government and individual liberty on their subjects.
A political reaction, followed by repressive measures,
set in ; and Jahn himself, in spite of his sacrifices and
priceless services, was not spared. He was arrested as
a demagogue and sentenced to two years' captivity in
a fortress ; and though this unjust sentence, pronounced
against one of the best sons of Germany, was cancelled
by the courage of a superior tribunal, yet his Govern-
ment kept him in durance from 18 19 to 1828, banished
him to Freiburg on the river Unstruth, prohibiting him
from teaching or living in any town where there was a
university or college ; and it was not till 1 840 that he
was fully set at liberty. During these years of disgrace
— disgrace for the rulers, not for him — he published

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn. xvii

various German works. A great work on the " Thirty
Years' War," which he had prepared, was unfortunately
destroyed by fire in 1838.

In consequence of his great sacrifices in the cause of
national independence, he found himself in straitened
circumstances. A national subscription procured him
a home and its comforts. His house, however, soon
became the asylum, the hospitium, of German patriots ;
and his pecuniary difficulties began again. But they
were again met by the generosity of his countrymen.

The spirit of arbitrary repression once more gave
way before the united effort of all enlightened Ger-
mans. Those who administered the Governments found
themselves compelled to grant free Constitutions ; a
Parliamentary system commenced; the Press became
free; and thus at length, in 1848, the longing of so
many Germans for a national unity seemed in a fair
way of being accomplished. The first German Parlia-
ment met at Frankfurt ; and Jahn was elected a
member of it by the newly- united people. And now
the dreams of his youth seemed to be realised. But it
was still only a dream — delightful, but brief. The rulers
again proved to be too strong for the aspirations of the
people. The Parliament was dissolved, the newly-
awakened liberty was again crushed, men were sent by
thousands to prison or to exile ; a second period of re-
action, more severe than the former one, set in ; and
Jahn — "Vater Jahn/' as the Germans fondly called
him — retired, for the last time and with a broken
heart, from public life. His death took place on the
15th October, 1852.

xviii Biographical Sketch of Friedrich Jahn.

Like many a leader on the rugged path towards
liberty, the martyr's crown was his only recompense.
He was not permitted to see the dawning of those
better times for which he had helped to prepare the
way. Bnt he will live for ever in the memory and the
affections of his countrymen. And as the advocate of
a true Physical Education, he deserves well not only
of his own country, but of mankind at large ; while his
character is in all respects specially worthy of the
sympathy and esteem of Englishmen — themselves the
representatives of that union of well-directed enthusiasm
and manly rectitude which was so conspicuous in
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn.

PART I.

HISTOKICAL SKETCH OF GYMNASTICS.

PART I.

HISTOEICAL SKETCH OF GYMNASTICS.

ORIENTAL ANTIQUITY AND GREECE.

Among all nations, whether of a high or of a low degree
of civilisation, some kind of exercises for training the
body have been practised ; and the object of them has
originally been the same, even though the methods may
have differed. By means of them, some nations rose
to a high degree of culture and influence ; others, by a
perverted use of them, or a mistaken method, were led
into errors which involved serious consequences. His-
tory shows that among communities where physical
education has been either neglected or misused, a
general enervation has prevailed, causing even the ruin
of the nation itself.

Indications of a use of bodily exercises are to be
found among the ancient inhabitants of India. But
among them the principal aim of such training was, to
give suppleness and flexibility to the body, merely for
the sake of amusement and show. Their exercises were
neither systematic nor general, nor had they any high
educational purpose.

It was otherwise among the Persians, whose physical

4 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

training had a national character. According to
Strabo, the Persian youth assembled in the morning at
a given signal, in an appointed place, for the exercises
of drilling and hunting. At the head of a squad,
formed of fifty youths, stood the son of a prince or
satrap, as the leader in races, which were performed
within a space of from thirty to forty stadia. At the
same time they exerted their lungs and voices, they
inured themselves to fatigue, and accustomed them-
selves to a coarse food, and to nocturnal watching
in the open field. In the evenings, for further disci-
pline, they were ordered to plant trees, to dig up roots,
and to manufacture arms and nets. Young boys went
through their exercises at home. The most skilful of
the youths received from the king plates or cups of
gold, as a reward and encouragement.

Besides these exercises and labours, Athenseus men-
tions their skill in riding and dancing, observing that
" the Persian esteemed dancing as a part of the phy-
sical education of youth, believing it to be an excellent
means of strengthening the body." But the Persian
dance was probably some kind of war-dance, not bear-
ing the slightest resemblance to our modern drawing-
room movements.

It would appear, then, that the aim of bodily train-
ing, among the old Persians, was that of strengthening
and invigorating the physical frame, and promoting a
simple, hardy, and healthy mode of life. But that they
did not neglect the culture and development of the moral
faculty, we may gather from Xenophon (Anab. I. 9, 3),
who says, " All the children of the highest families are

Oriental Antiquity and Greece. 5

educated at court, in order to gain, in a society where
nothing disgraceful is either heard or seen, a habit of
the most complete self-control ; and to learn, even as
boys, both to rule and to be ruled."

Among the Jews, but little attention was given to
exercises for the body. The mind of this nation was
directed towards the inner man. Even the principal
exercise they had, dancing — in which, however, girls
alone were instructed — was practised only for the
purpose of elevating and enlivening their religious
festivals.

It has been asserted that bodily exercises, like music,
were not practised among the Egyptians. But the
fact that they were not universally the custom, is no
proof that they were entirely unknown to that people.
Diodorus indeed (I. 53) relates the legend that on the
birth of Sesostris, his father gave orders that all boys
born in Egypt on the same day as his son should be
brought together, accompanied by the persons to whose
care they were committed, and undergo henceforth a
like course of instruction with that of the royal youth
(as he was convinced that those who had been educated
in common would become the best friends and com-
panions in arms) ; and that these boys were enjoined to
go through a stated course of discipline, none being
allowed even to take food, if he had not previously run
over a fixed number of stadia. Thus trained, Sesostris
and his companions, having arrived at manhood in full
strength of body and vigour of mind, were able to
accomplish with ease the greatest exploits.

Plato also bears evidence to the use of bodily

6 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

exercises among the Egyptians. He says, " Ciphering
is learnt there first, in proportion to the children's
powers of comprehension, by means of games and
amusements, a certain number of boys receiving apples
or wreaths of flowers in a certain numerical ratio, and
being required to find out what proportion is necessary,
and in accordance with the game; further, by the
arrangement of warlike games, in which they change
their places ; and, lastly, by exchanging in turn cups of
gold, silver, iron, or other material, which they hand to
one another. Thus, the pupils are instructed in peace-
ful occupations, in carrying on war, and in managing
the affairs of the house ; and, in general, educated to
be useful members of the State/' We see from this
quotation, that bodily training was not absolutely
unknown in Egypt. But it did not exist under any
such conditions, or for any such purposes, as those
which belonged to it in Greece. The inhabitants of
Chemmis alone, of all the Egyptians, celebrated athletic
games, and distributed prizes to the victors. Even
these games, however, were in no respect based, as were
the games of Greece, on the conviction that mind and
body ought to make equal progress in the advance
towards development. They were merely festivals in
honour of Perseus. (Herodotus, II. 91).

II.

THE GREEKS.

In Greece athletic exercises were cultivated by the
whole nation with a passionate enthusiasm. Ancient
Hellas considered them as of the utmost national im-
portance, celebrated them in songs, and saw in them
the basis of its physical and intellectual, its public and
private welfare. They were an essential part of the
education of youth, and had the greatest influence on
the national character.

The principle that common and equal education of
youth has the most beneficial consequences for society,
prevailed as far back as in the heroic age of the Greeks :
such an education was looked upon as the best founda-
tion of intimate and lasting friendship. We are told
of the common education of Achilles and Patroclus in
the castle of Peleus, of that of Orestes and Pylades, and
others. Active life being at this period almost the only
education, we may conclude that more care was bestowed
upon the development of the body than of the mind ;
for the entire bent of the heroic age was towards
achievements in arms.

While the festive games of the Egyptians, and
indeed of the Greeks themselves in the earlier times,
were used for the purpose of doing honour to the
dead, they were transformed by the later Greeks into

8 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

ceremonials of the most joyous character. The circle
of bodily exercises was gradually widened; they be-
came more regular and systematic, whereas they were,
in their earlier stage, based on practical experience
only, for theory was then imperfect and obscure. The
name of ( ' Gymnastics," a designation which shows that
the art had become a recognised system, was unknown
in the time of Homer.

Originally, the object of the exercises was prepara-
tion for military warfare. They comprised the use of
the bow, the throwing of the sling, and some of the
movements of a well-known group of exercises known at
a later period by the name of " Pentathlon *" these were
wrestling, running, leaping, the throwing of the discus,
and hurling the lance or spear. Hunting, although a fa-
vourite amusement, was no regular part of the physical
training of youth. In later times, in place of the combat
with the fist, which had come to be considered too
brutal, the Spartans introduced leaping, an exercise
hitherto unused. The handling of the bow, too, lost
in later times its former renown, being looked upon as
unmanly and treacherous. Even in the early period of
the Trojan war, but few archers are mentioned besides
Teucer. Homer enumerates the following athletic
exercises : the combat with the fist, wrestling, hurling
the lance, and the foot-race. Besides skill in these
games, a duly qualified hero was bound to possess skill
in the use of arms and in the management of horses
and chariots on the battle-field, no less than at the
festive games. Dancing is also placed by Homer in the

The Greeks. 9

list of bodily exercises. Meriones, a Cretan, especially
excelled in this art ; and the poet bestows upon him
the eulogistic epithet of " The Dancer/''

ThePhseacians did not exercise their male youth in the
combat with the fist, nor in wrestling, but preferred
the foot-race, dancing, singing, and navigation. Of
exercises for women, only the game of ball, and latterly
the so-called chain-dance, were known.

With the successive formation of States in Greece
gymnastics were gradually developed and improved,
according to the principles upon which those States
were founded. The chief, or leaders, in the unions of
Greek States, were Athens and Sparta. All the others
followed these, the most powerful and the most civilised.
Those which followed the Spartan State-system, or were
subjected to it, were called Doric States ; those which
held to Athens were called Ionian States. The organisa-
tion of these cycles of States respectively rested upon
an essentially different basis.

In the Doric States the polity was based upon the
principle of a common education of the whole nation,
and a special training for young men. Education,
indeed, was the nerve of all the life of the community.
The individual was to live solely for the good of the
commonwealth. Physical education was predominant ;
and such intellectual culture as existed concerned itself,
not with the human, but only with the Spartan mind.
Private education was unknown, all laws and regulations
being instituted for society in corpore. By means of a
common, and chiefly physical education, a State was to

io Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

be formed and upheld, united by the bonds of tempe-
rance, harmony, and love, that should at once be free,
powerful, and invincible.

The great statesman Lycurgus acted on the principle
that all the members of his republic ought to be
physically strong and healthy. Hence that well-known
education of Spartan youth, with its endurance of heat,
cold, hunger, and thirst, and that simple and frugal
life. But the old as well as the young, the learned as
well as the unlearned, practised various kinds of exer-
cises. Lycurgus, and at a later period Cleomenes, paid
the most zealous attention to strict discipline in the
education of the children, and regulated the life of
youths by the most minute rules, in order that they
might grow up healthy in body and mind. Lycurgus
considered it contrary to reason that a greater care
should be paid to the improvement of the breed of
horses and dogs than to the training of men.

The whole time of the education of the boy was
divided into certain periods. His body was hardened
in all possible ways by gymnastic exercises, games, hard
work of many kinds, and the endurance of hunger and
thirst ; and he was supposed to be rendered insensible
to pain by undergoing, at the festival of Diana, a course
of flagellation. Marching, riding, dancing, wrestling,
foot-races, were some of the exercises ; and in the three
last the young women also took an active part. A
fresh, manly, ruddy complexion, and a slender growth,
were physical characteristics of boys in the time of Ly-
curgus; and he who had the most black-and-blue marks
and scars on his body passed as the most deserving.

The Greeks. 1 1

All the exercises of the Spartans aimed only at form-
ing men at once free, powerful, and invincible, who
should be able to defend their country to the death.
There were no other walls than the iron bodies of the
Spartan citizens. From childhood they rendered them-
selves familiar with combats and fatigues. The magis-
trates dispersed the boys over the country, bare-footed
and almost without clothes, exposed to cold and
hunger. The Lacedaemonian women tried their
strength in wrestling with the youths; they were
trained to give to the State a vigorous race. Their
fortitude of character was such as to make the mother
forget the loss of her own son, when victory was gained.
In the earlier times the Lacedaemonians, in the
opinion of Aristotle, carried exercises to excess, and
" rendered their boys, by hardening them, actually wild
and rough, as if this were a part of bravery." But in
later times the object of gymnastics was, besides their
practical usefulness, the attainment of a noble and
beautiful carriage of the body, free from all mere artistic
and artificial grace.

For all the free sons of free citizens gymnastics were
made compulsory.

In Crete gymnastics were cultivated still more
zealously than in Sparta, especially the foot-race, for
which reason the Gymnasia were frequently called
dpofioL. In these the youths also practised throwing
the lance, the Pyrrhic war- dance, and various martial
games, which were performed on certain days, when
the youths of one band contended against those of
another, in regular order of battle, not only with fists,

c

1 2 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

but also with wooden and iron weapons, accompanied
by the music of the lyre or flute.

While in Sparta and the other Doric States physical
education was the basis of all instruction, and higher
intellectual life and individual liberty were but imper-
fectly developed, the tendency of the Ionian States
was to blend body and mind into one whole, while yet
giving the predominance to the latter. The Ionian
method became in later times the model for the edu-
cation of all Greece. The most perfect expression of
that internal harmony which characterised Greek life
was the well-bred Attic citizen, who displayed, like a
successful work of plastic art, an indwelling equili-
brium, a consummate unity, by the medium of a beau-
tiful form and a countenance full of soul ; exhibiting,
by external symmetry and rhythm, as it were the
mirror of realised beauty.

In the earlier times of Greece bodily exercises
were practised in an arbitrary and capricious manner.
History names Pythagoras as the man who, preceded by
Solon, first regulated them, rendered them systematic,
and embodied them as a recognised art in Greek life.
According to this philosopher, gymnastics were destined
not only to give an external education to the Greek,
but they were also to influence the inmost soul ; they
were to co-operate with and sustain intellectual and
moral education. Thus also Plato conceived of gym-
nastics. He says that the arts of the gymnasts were
always to be judged according to their principal aim,
and their influence on the higher culture; that the
gymnasts ought to be thoroughly acquainted with the

The Greeks, 13

nature of man and led by truly ethical motives. Pytha-
goras, the first preceptor of the Greek peoples, based
his principle upon education of the intellect, of the
heart, of the will, and of the body ; that is, upon intel-
lectual, moral, and corporeal perfection. He was ener-
getically seconded in his efforts by those who were at
the helm of the State.

An important influence on the development of gym-
nastics resulted from the legislation of Dracon and
Solon, which enjoined on youth, before all things,
temperance and modesty, and prescribed what free
boys and young men were to learn, and in what
manner they were to be educated. The wise Solon
said, as Lucian represents, to the Scythian Ana-
charsis : —

"It is not enough for us Hellenes, each of us to
live merely in that condition of body in which Nature
has created him; but we enjoin every man to acquire a
skill in gymnastics, in order that the happy production
of Nature may be rendered better, and that bad dispo-
sitions may be ameliorated. Our example, in this re-
spect, is the practice of the husbandmen, who protect
and fence their plants, as long as they are small and
tender, so that they may not be injured even by the
breezes ; but who afterwards, when the shoot has grown
strong, cut away the exuberant vegetation, and, aban-
oning the tree to the swaying and shaking of storms,
render it thereby stronger and more fertile." With
clear and simple words Solon explains, as Lucian fur-
ther narrates, the object of Greek gymnastics. " In
contrast with the white bodies of the barbarians, with

c2

1 4 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics,

their sluggish corpulence or pallid leanness, trembling,
vacillating, and wasting away, the bodies of the Greeks
are ruddy, bronzed by the sun, manly in appearance, and
displaying the fulness of animal life, warmth, and
vigour; they enjoy the best health, and are neither on
the one hand misshapen or attenuated, nor on the other
of a burdensome corpulence, but are symmetrically
formed; for all that would be useless and exuberant
has been carried off by perspiration, while all that pro-
duces strength and tensity they retain, free of unhealthy
admixture, and keep it in vigour. As husbandmen do,
in winnowing their wheat, so our gymnasts use to do
with their body ; the chaff and husks they blow away,
the pure corn they carefully separate and lay it up in
store. From this practice health and the utmost endu-
rance under fatigue necessarily result. A man thus
constituted will not perspire so readily, and rarely is he
seen failing in strength. Just as, if one should fling
fire into the unfanned wheat — to bring forward again
the parable of the winnower — the chaff and straw would
be rapidly consumed by the flames, but the wheat itself
would waste gradually, not in one blaze of wide flame,
but slowly burning out through a length of time ; so,
in the same manner, fatigue and sickness will not
easily overpower a well-trained body, for within itself it
is too thoroughly prepared, and externally too strongly
fortified, to suffer essential mischief from outward in-
fluences. Should such a frame be about to relax under
fatigue, then that fortifying vital ardour which is pre-
pared and stored within it for use at need streams forth
in its fulness, and renews the system, fitting it for

The Greeks. 15

almost invincible effort. Even much previous exertion
and hard labour causes, not exhaustion, but increase,
of strength, which is thereby stirred up in a greater
degree." "Thou wouldst appear, my Anacharsis, to
estimate strength as though it were something of a fluid
nature, and to fear therefore lest it should gradually be
lost by force of exertion, and in the end leave the body
altogether empty and dry. But it is not so ; nay, the
more strength is drawn forth by exertion the more
richly does it flow on within; even as the hydra, in
the well-known fable, in place of one head cut off
always threw out two new ones ; whereas if the bodily
force remain unexercised and untested, and have not a
sufficiency of material in store, then any unwonted
exertion will be pernicious to it and consume it ; even
so as with the fire and with the lamp ; by strong blow-
ing thou canst first kindle the fire, and canst likewise, by
blowing, make it more powerful, whilst thou canst by
a breath extinguish the little light of the lamp, because
it has not sufficient element of life to be able to with-
stand." " I should like to set together before thee one
of those white creatures, brought up in the shade, and
any one of our gymnasts, and I am certain that even
at first sight, and without testing each of them by deeds,
thou wouldst prefer, of the two, to be the well-knit and
firm-set one, instead of being, like the other, effeminate,
flaccid, and white for lack of the flow of the blood to
the interior parts of the body."

In contrast with Sparta, where the individual found
his liberty only in the common liberty, in Athens indi-
vidual liberty was the aim of the State in all things ;

1 6 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

and, consequently, private instruction and education
were the rule, not the exception. The mind had,
therefore, a larger field of action, and intellectual
culture could be better cared for. The higher the
cultivation of the mind rose, the more that of the body-
sank, and would probably have almost entirely disap-
peared, had not the exquisite sense of beauty which
existed among the Greeks secured for it a longer term
of life ; for the principle continued to be predominant,
that a beautiful soul can dwell only in a beautiful
body.

In the very plays of the children there was a differ-
ence between Sparta and Athens. While the Spartan
sports aimed only at war and hardship, the Athenians
had a wider field and greater freedom. Children were
to be allowed, as Aristotle says, to play till five years
old, in order to accustom themselves early to activity
and to detest indolence in their later years : the plays,
however, were to be confined rather to such things as
are carried on seriously in maturity. In Athens there
was a great number of plays for amusement and ex-
ercise. They were considered as a preparation for life,
and a means of awakening activity and earnestness, and
were held in high esteem by Greek philosophers. The
principal plays, besides those (already mentioned) of the
Spartans, and various games at ball, such as tennis and
others, were : —

Epostracismos. — This consisted in the skill of so
flinging a small flat stone obliquely over the water as
that it should skim the surface, and then counting the
bounds it made. In this grave description an English

The Greeks. 17

boy will recognise the delightful amusement of " duck
and drake."

Ostracinda was a game played with flat stones, white
on one side and black on the other. When the throw
brought the black side uppermost, the thrower was
found to flee while the other player pursued him.
Perhaps this may be the original form of " pitch and
toss."

Myinda and Pselaphinda. — Blind-man's buff, and hide
and seek.

Omilla. — Walnuts or other fruit were placed in a
circle. Every player tried, according to certain rules
unknown to us, to catch the stake of the player next
to him.

Sc/icenopkilinda was a game in which boys sat round
a rope — something like " hunt the slipper/'

Dielhystinda or Helkystinda. — These were games in
which children, ranged in two rows, seized one another's
hands, and tried each to pull the other over to their
own side ; or pulled at opposite ends of a rope ; as in
" tug of war," " French and English."

Pentalithos. — A girls' game, which consisted in
throwing up five pebbles, and catching them again on
the back of the hand.

Askoliasmos was a game performed by youths during
a festival dedicated to Bacchus. It consisted in jump-
ing and dancing upon a wine-skin filled with wine or
oil. It was considered a skilful feat to keep upright
without slipping down.

In Athens gymnastics were used as a means of educa-
tion of all free Greeks. It has not been ascertained

1 8 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

whether the whole youth, boys and young men, were
instructed simultaneously in all the exercises. They
were, no doubt, drilled according to the various degrees
of age, strength, and capability of bearing fatigue — not,
however, for the sake of public exhibition, but for the
purpose of developing and strengthening the physical
frame. It was only at a later period that boys took
part in the national games and were crowned as victors.
In the 37th Olympiad the first prizes for boys were
proposed, to be awarded for foot-race and wrestling.
In the 38th Olympiad, Eutelidos obtained the olive-
branch of victory in the Pentathlon. In the 41st
Olympiad, Philetas of Sybaris gained the victory in
the combat with the fist ; and the iEtolian Phsedimos
of Troas in the Pankration, in the 140th Olympiad,
when boys were admitted to this grade of gymnastics.

THE GYMNASIA.

The exercises were performed in the Gymnasia, or in
places selected for the purpose, and were superintended
and conducted by appointed masters.

With a view of promoting bodily exercises, the Greeks
erected splendid buildings, with halls, saloons, baths,
and shady walks. These buildings were called Gym-
nasia, and were gradually developed into noble works of
architectural art, where the people assembled in large
numbers, not only to admire the robust gymnasts, but
alsoto listen to the philosophers, orators, and minstrels,
who resorted thither. Every town was provided with
one or more buildings destined for gymnastic practice,
adorned with statues, paintings, and altars for offerings

The Gymnasia, 19

and sacrifices, and consecrated to one of the gods or to
some one of the illustrious dead, who had well merited
the thanks of his fatherland. We find in Mercurialis
the most interesting details respecting the construction
of gymnasia. But not only had every town a building
of this kind — the rich citizens had, besides, gymnasia
within the interior of their residences. The public
gymnasia were, like the Agora, the place of meeting
for men. There were to be found, as mentioned above,
orators and philosophers, who loitered in the colonnades ;
the athletes, practising either in the palaestra (place of
combat) or xystos (the covered portico) ; the warriors,
inuring their frames to fatigue ; youths, receiving in-
struction ; the bathers ; and numerous spectators, walk-
ing under the trees, or taking their seats within the
stadium, and enjoying the spectacle of wrestling. Here
the Greek youths were drilled, under the instruction
and direction of public officers, masters of gymnastics,
medical men and others, in all that might assist them
to attain strength and beauty. Men, of all ages, were
present whilst they performed their exercises, and
animated and incited them to bold deeds.

The chief officers of a gymnasium were the fol-
lowing : —

The Gymnasiarches was an officer of State who
superintended the gymnastic exercises.

The nature of the office of the Xystarches is not
quite clear. The word appears to be derived from
xystos, a covered place for exercises, open on all sides,
and used in winter, where the Xystarches probably
presided. Equally difficult to explain is the office of

20 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

the Kosmetes, of the Anti-kosmetes, and Hypokosmetes,
who were attached to the former. The office of Kos-
metes must have been very high, for to one occupant
of it the gymnasiarchs even erected a statue. Perhaps
it denoted the chief director of a gymnasium, charged
with general order and arrangement, or he had possibly
the chief command of the Ephebs.

As officers under the authority of the Gymnasiarches,
we find the Psedotribes and the Gymnastes. The dis-
tinction between these two is not quite clear. The
Gymnastes appears, however, to have been instructor
in gymnastic exercises and trainer of the athletes ; the
office of the Psedotribes was probably the external
physical development, deportment, discipline, diet,
&c. He conducted the boys to the public games
and exercises. He had assistants, called Hypopeedo-
tribes.

The Aleiptes, again, was distinct from the Gymnastes
and Psedotribes. His duties were concerned with the
anointing with oil of those who practised, with the
dietetical arrangement of food and drink. But he
was also sometimes charged with instruction in gym-
nastics.

The Sphceristes was the director of the various games
at ball, some of which were performed amidst dancing
and singing.

The Agonethetai were regulators, umpires, and super-
intendents of the combats.

The Sophronistes was charged with keeping the
youths within the bounds of modesty and virtue.
There were ten of these officers.

Varieties Purposes of Greek Gymnastics. 2 1

Besides the above-mentioned officers, there were in
a gymnasium a number of others, whose duty was to
attend to the friction and unction of those who
practised, and also several sellers of victuals of various
kinds.

The Athenians had three great establishments — the
Academy, the Lyceum, and the Cynosarch. But none
of these were on a par with those Gymnasia where the
national games of Greece — the Olympic, Pythian, Isth-
mian, and Nemaean games — were celebrated.

VARIOUS PURPOSES OF GREEK GYMNASTICS.

Greek physicians and philosophers distinguished
three kinds of gymnastics — medical, athletic, and mili-
tary. Many of the exercises were common to all three
classes; some belonged to one of them only. In
Athens — not, be it observed, in Sparta — gymnastics
were subdivided into two classes, viz., educational and
agonistic — the last-named of which were employed to
train athletes and soldiers. There were, in addition,
other exercises which did not belong to gymnastics
properly so-called — such as riding, chariot- driving,
games of ball, performed specially during the festivals
of Hephaistos and Prometheus — a peculiar race during
the Panathenaia — swimming, and some others.

Educational and Medical Gymnastics. — Gymnastics, as
has been said, were considered as a necessary element
in the education of all free Greeks. Their special
character, as already remarked, varied according to the
organisation and basis of the various States and different
periods of Greek history. There were, however, five

2 2 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

exercises, named collectively the Pentathlon, which
were common to all the Greek States, and were the
principal performance at the national games. The
Pentathlon consisted of the foot-race, leaping, wrestling,
throwing the discus, hurling the lance. These, as
forming a principal feature in all the classes of gymnas-
tics, shall be briefly described here.

The Foot-race. — The Hellenic nations esteemed the
race before all other gymnastic exercises ; it was usually
the opening contest in the public games. Even women
occasionally took part in it. Every gymnasium had a
course or race-ground, separated from the rest of the
building, and surrounded with ranges of seats in the
form of an amphitheatre for the spectators. The course
was covered with sand, which was intended to render
running much more difficult. He who ran once through
its extent — a distance of 600 feet — was called (l runner
of the stadium '" he who ran through it twice, was called
" runner of the double stadium." Races that were meant
to test endurance, were of a much longer duration and
more often repeated, so much so that ' ' the long run"
counted twenty-four times round the stadium. Often
the race was performed by runners completely armed.
Of the perseverance and swiftness of the Greek in
running we read the most astonishing accounts. One
boy is said to have caught hares in full speed; another
to have defeated a horse in a racing match ; and one is
reported to have traversed the distance from Platsea to
Delphi, more than twenty hours' walk, and returned
before sunset, in one day.

Various Purposes of Greek Gymnastics. 23

Running was valued by the Greeks as strengthening
the feet, legs, and thighs, fortifying health, giving
endurance, agility, and beauty, and securing a means
of safety in many dangers.

Leaping. — This exercise was highly valued, especially
from a military point of view. In warfare it was of
service not only for the purpose of surmounting obstacles
to an advance, but also for adding vigour to a charge.
Long leap was practised most frequently and with most
success; high jump more rarely; and the downward
leap but seldom. To attain, by the same act of leaping,
at once distance and height, was an exploit very highly
esteemed. In each gymnasium, for the practice of
these movements, trenches were cut, and sharp-pointed
poles, cords for leaping over, and vaulting-hoops for
leaping through, provided. A favourite pastime for
country-people was that of jumping upon a full wine-
skin, previously made slippery with oil. The jumper
was required to remain standing upon the wine-skin.
There were also some exercises in leaping, in which feet,
shoulders, and head were weighted with heavy objects.

The leaping practised by the Hellene produced the
most beneficial effects upon his organism. By exerting
to the utmost the muscular power of the lower parts of
his body, he gained the power of springing with force,
grace, and steady balance, to an astonishing distance
and height. His power of vision was quickened through
the necessity of calculating with exactness the point of
his leap, the intervening space, the relative width and
height; his courage and resolution were strengthened

24 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

by the effort of urging himself forward in the face of
obstacles.

Wrestling existed among the Greeks in different
forms — e.g., bending an antagonist's arm in the joint of
the elbow, opening the hand, moving an opponent
from his place, throwing and lifting, &c. Various
kinds of mutual attack, of seizing and throwing,
rendered this an exercise of varied utility. Let us
picture to ourselves two men wrestling. To begin
with, we may note that the previous shaking of hands,
as a mark that both antagonists would fight one another
without detriment to their friendship, placed wrestling
in a position worthy of respect. Composed, with a
noble bearing, without any passionate wrangling or
scuffing (every brutal show of power being strictly
prohibited) , each strains his powers as much as possible,
in the hope of conquering his opponent. A display of
strength, whereby no limb, no muscle, no sinew remains
unstrained, is presented to the eye in wrestling as in no
other exercise. The very attitude, the mere pose of
both wrestlers as they stand opposite to each other, is
beautiful, earnest, and of great effect on the body.
Waiting the expected attack, both are moving, now to
the left, then to the right, now forwards, then back-
wards— an excellent exercise to keep the eye watchful ;
for its withdrawal one moment from the opponent
would be followed by an attack favourable to the latter.
The eye must endeavour to elude the adversary; it
must discern the moment when he is to be seized. As
the combatants grasp one another, what a development

Various Purposes of Greek Gymnastics. 25

of strength then appears ! What control over it, that
it overpass not the due limit, lest some mutual injury
occur ! Greek wrestling is the most complete and most
harmonious of all gymnastic exercises.

For Throwing the Discus the Greeks employed an
iron wheel, resembling a small shield, without a handle
or straps to seize it, heavy and quite smooth. The
thrower of the discus first rubbed his hand with dust
in order to be better able to keep his hold, then stepped
upon a little mound thrown up for the purpose, and,
after having well calculated the swing and sharply
fixed his eye upon the line of projection, sent the discus
. whizzing through the air to a certain distance and at a
certain height. Exulting shouts followed its flight.
Solon said, according to Lucian, of the thrower of the
discus : — " This discus they throw to a height and
distance at the same time ; and consider it a glory to
send it to the greatest possible distance, and to outdo
one another. This exercise strengthens the shoulders,
and increases the elasticity of the feet and legs." The
exercise had, by reason of the bending and balancing of
the body, a very excellent effect on the tendons of the
arms, chest, and back ; and on the muscles of the feet.
In Hurling the Lance or Spear it was necessary to aim
at a mark. A manly, free, and noble bearing, and a
sharp, quick, sure eye, were the result of this exercise.
The position alone of the thrower is beneficial to the
whole body. He stands in a striding posture, the
body rests, bent somewhat backwards, upon the leg
placed behind. The eye is directed to the point aimed

26 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

at,- and at the signal of the will the elasticity of the
muscles of the arm and chest is set free, and the lance
flies towards the mark, despatched by the backwards-
drawn arm.

These five movements, as above mentioned, consti-
tuted the Pentathlon (contest-fivefold), the principal
performance at the national games. Aristotle maintains
that those pentathlonists, who carried off the prizes,
were among the most beautiful of men.

Medical gymnastics, the object of which was to preserve
health by maintaining mind and body in a just equili-
brium, were greatly recommended by ancient authors.
Herodicus, among others, laid down the first rules of
them. They comprise less violent exercises, such as
dancing, some games at ball, marching, racing, leaping,
swimming, hunting, the various exercises of the voice,
navigation, equitation, chariot-driving. Some military
and athletic exercises, used moderately, formed a part of
medical gymnastics, more nearly allied to those classed
as educational.

When about to go through his exercises the Hellene
took off his clothes, rubbed his body with oil, and
covered it with dust and sand. But it has not been
ascertained whether gymnastic exercises were invariably
practised in a state of nudity, although the root of the
term (yvjuvog) seems to imply this. Gymnastics under
this condition appear to have been less frequent with
the Athenians. The Cretans first began the practice,
which came into use afterwards among the Spartans.
By a law of the 32nd Olympiad, it was decreed that the
foot-race should be performed naked. The rubbing of

Various Purposes of Greek Gymnastics. 2 7

the body with oil was meant to strengthen the skin and
to secure protection against possible injuries, and the
covering with sand served to lessen the chance of
slipping in wrestling, and was believed to increase
elasticity when the combatants seized one another, and
tried to hold fast each other's slippery body. Sand was
also said to check perspiration, to render the strength
more lasting, and to keep off the chilling effect of the air.

After the young Greek had exercised his body in the
heat of the sun and exerted his strength to the utmost,
he took a bath as refreshment, and greatly enjoyed the
water after a hot contest. The cooling and cleansing
of the oily, dusty, skin, proves what care the Greeks
bestowed upon their persons. Bathing was so much
associated with gymnastics that, in order that it might
be enjoyed frequently, bathing establishments were
connected with gymnasia, and splendid edifices built
for this purpose. When the weather was favourable,
baths were taken in the rivers and the sea, where the
Greek youth practised swimming and diving. In these
arts, likewise, Greek gymnastics had reached the
highest degree of skill. It is said that a Greek,
desiring to escape from the Persians to join his own
countrymen, passed over a distance of four leagues on
and under the water.

Athletic Gymnastics. — The training of the athletes
differed from that used for the ordinary national exer-
cises. The former consisted principally in wrestling,
in which each of the combatants endeavoured to throw
his adversary on the floor of the arena; pugilism, or
combat with the fist ; the pankration, which combined in

D

28 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

one, wrestling and pugilism; the combat with the
cestus, in which the blows with the fist were rendered
more terrible by enormous gauntlets, made of leather
straps and iron plates ; the use of weights of different
form (halteres) ; games of ball (sphceristica), racing,
leaping, &c. We read with an emotion of terror the
description of the combats with the cestus in Homer
and Virgil. The latter shows us Entellus preparing
himself for the combat : —

In medium geminos immani pondere cestus

Projecit

Obstupuere animi : tantorum ingentia septem
Terga bourn plumbo insuto ferroque rigebaut.

et pectore vastos

Dant sonitus ; duro crepitant sub vulnere malse.

Dares is vanquished, and his friends carry him off : —

Genua asgra trahentem
Jactantemque utroque caput, crassumque cruorem
Ore rejectantem, mixtosque in sanguine dentes.

In the encounter of Pollux and Amyctus, described
by Theocritus, Pollux strikes his adversary between
the eyebrows with such violence that he strips off the
skin of the forehead and lays open the bone. Although
it was forbidden, under penalty of losing the prize, to
kill an adversary, yet this did sometimes occur. Pausa-
nias gives a striking example of the violent passion of
certain athletes. Arrhichion breaks the toe of an adver-
sary by whom he is about to be suffocated ; the latter,
overcome by the pain, owns himself vanquished ; but
the victor expires an instant afterwards.

Many things related of the Greek athletes savour of

Military Gymnastics. 29

the marvellous. Milo of Crotona, carrying a bull in
the circus, Polydamas arresting with one hand a
chariot drawn by four horses, resemble the heroes of
the romance period. Every schoolboy knows how they
perished in their hot-brained enterprises. Their dietary
is not less wonderful than their strength. Milo of
Crotona is said to have consumed daily eighteen pounds
of meat, eighteen pounds of bread, and fifteen pints of
wine. They passed more than half their life in a sleep
rendered heavy by a laborious digestion.

Even before modern criticism had attacked these
heroes of the gymnasium and circus, the ancient
authors themselves had not spared them. " Plato
enim athletas somnolentos, segnes, ignaros, desides,
vertiginosos, tandemque morbosos nuncupavit." Euri-
pides had said, in his time —

kclkwv yap ovtcov [ivpicov md' 'EXXa8a
Ovdev k6.ki.6v eariv a%\r)T<ov yevovs.

Galen gives them on an average five years of existence
in their professional career. The contemporary authors
are full of bitter satires on the deformities which the
" pugilatus" impressed upon the bruised faces of the
athletes. But except this condemnation of athletic
exercises in their abuse, we find that ancient authors
are unanimous in praising, especially in their medical
branch, the benefits to be gained from gymnastics.

MILITARY GYMNASTICS.

To the range of exercises which were specially
destined to form and train the soldier, and which were
preceded by, or practised together with, exercises of

d2

30 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

the classes named and described above, belonged the
" Pyrrhiche," or pyrrhic dance — a war- dance, per-
formed under the weight of arms — the discus, arcus,
jaculatio, funda, the mock combats or sham -fights
called monomachia, sciamachia, races of chariots, and
some others.

NATIONAL GAMES.

In Greece, gymnastics, like music, were not only, as
has been already shown, an important part of the highest
education, but they also constituted an essential feature
in the popular life. The importance that belonged to
them was seen at its height during the national
festivals, which took place at regularly recurring
intervals, and formed the principal bond in the united
brotherhood of the Hellenic tribes. These festivals
were held in honour of the gods ; and thus gymnastics
became associated with the highest national and
religious solemnities. The whole Greek nation met
together within and around the sacred gymnasium
for the celebration of the festival. The gathering-
places highest in dignity and importance were those of
Olympia, of Delphi, of the Corinthian Isthmus, and
of Nemsea. The games at Olympia were the most
celebrated. They were held every fourth year, in the
midst of an immense concourse of people. Homer
and Yirgil tell us that solemn festivals were like-
wise celebrated on the occasion of triumphs and
remarkable events, or to honour the ashes of illustrious
warriors. These national festivals were opened with
sacrifices and other religious services, and thus re-
ceived a religious character ; afterwards, various feats

National Games. 3 1

of gymnastics, chiefly (as already remarked) the Pen-
tathlon, were performed in presence of a crowd
gathered from all parts of Greece. The competition
for prizes was the central interest of the occasion.
Combatants and spectators alike felt as if animated
by one soul, united in one common fraternity. But
in the course of the festival, not only were gymnastic
exercises and games performed — the masterpieces
of the artists were there exhibited and criticised ;
there the poets, philosophers, and historians brought
forward the creations of their genius. We have here,
on a large scale, an evidence which we find everywhere
in every Greek State — nay, even in each individual
Greek — that the Hellenic culture aimed after an
harmoniously blended development of mind and
body. For, in the national games, contests of the
mind as well as of the body were witnessed, for the
gaining of that laurel wreath, to win which was the
highest distinction that a Greek could obtain : and there
also appeared on the arena distinguished scholars, artists,
great musicians, struggling to win, not only by the
works of their genius, but by the strength of their
muscles in wrestlings and other combats, the crown
which would immortalise the one no less than the
other.

No wonder is it, then, that the youth of Greece dis-
played so great a zeal for bodily dexterity. The most
brilliant future, the most glorious marks of honour,
awaited them, if they carried off the victor's crown in
one of the combats. The crown awarded at Olympia
was of olive ; at Delphi, of laurel ; on the Isthmus, of

32 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics,

pine-branch ; at Nemsea, of parsley. In the time of
Homer the reward of such victories consisted in arms,
and similar trophies. Each time, as the name and
birthplace of the victor was proclaimed, the crowd
shouted with exultation towards the spot where he
stood, carried him around on their shoulders, adorned
him with a wreath, covered him with flowers and leaves,
and loaded him with precious gifts. The towns courted
him, that he might deign to become one of their
citizens. The greatest poets sang in immortal songs
of triumph his glory, his descent, his virtue, and his
beauty. Artists immortalised him in marble and brass.
Banquets and processions were arranged in his honour.
The exultant crowd of his countrymen went forth to
meet him, and even pulled down the walls of their
city in proof that the town wherein such citizens
dwelt, need fear nothing from her enemies. The State
bestowed upon him the most glorious privileges, and
honoured him not only with rich gifts and important
functions, but also with a statue. For parents it
was a maddening joy to see one of their children
crowned ; we are told that Chilon, and Diagoras of
Rhodes, died of such a rapture in the midst of the
applause of the crowd.

But we find the Greek youth not only competing
for an olive or a laurel branch on the festive ground,
we meet him again on the battle-field, struggling for
the freedom and the honour of his fatherland. We
find him in the hot combat at Thermopylae, dying
bravely for his country, with the heroic Leonidas.

History designates the Hellenes as the happy god-

Decay of Greek Gymnastics, 33

beloved people of freedom, beauty, and art. A firm
step, a noble bearing, a vigorous frame, a polished,
embrowned skin, a modest, but manly expression, duly
proportioned education — all these were the fruits of
gymnastics. The noble and perfect form of the Hellene
was the outward expression of his inward serenity and
symmetry of soul.

DECAY OP GREEK GYMNASTICS.

But, unfortunately for Greece, this happy time did
not last. A time of degeneracy succeeded ; and this
noble institution for moulding into perfection the human
being perished gradually with the downfall of Greek
liberty and independence. Education, in all senses,
suffered a great change subsequently to the time of
Socrates. The emancipation of body and mind were
no longer the chief object. In physical training the
degeneracy began by the gradual disappearance of the
civilising element in the noble art of gymnastics, which
gave way before vanity and ambition, increasingly
fostered as these passions were by mere showy perform-
ances. Those gymnastics which in former days had ren-
dered the Hellene a perfect being — physically, morally,
and aesthetically — and had given rise, during more than
two generations, to immortal works, perished ignomini-
ously, and only a spiritless, empty art remained. Greedi-
ness after reward, and the cravings of ambition, were
now become the incentives. Frequently now the athletes
fought with vindictive rage, contrary to all ancient
rules, such as those given in the foregoing description
of their contests.

34 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

In such education, too, as was now bestowed on the
mind, all the care was spent upon oratorical art and
deceptive display of words. Egotism and insolence
showed themselves in speech and deed ; all instruction
became formal, based upon vain illusion.

The decline of gymnastics had a special effect on the
military system, which, in the old days, had demanded
the drilling and hardening of the frame. Whereas
formerly the citizen had been used to take up his arms
with enthusiasm, now the mercenary system prevailed,
and effeminacy succeeded to hardihood. That gymnas-
tics were a necessary condition of the maintenance of
Greek freedom and Greek life, is sufficiently shown by
the fate of Greece in her gradual downfall, and, in
contrast, by the more lasting and more solid welfare
and freedom of those Greek towns where gymnastic
exercises were still cultivated, as in Tarentum and
Crotona.

From the downfall of Greek independence in the
time of Alexander the Great to the rise of the Greek
Empire, gymnastics consisted only of empty feats and
artistic exhibitions. A vaunting dexterity was the
result ; and the moral tendency of gymnastics gave
way before it. Leaping from one horse to another,
artificial and extravagant dances and feats, were the
exercises of these days. Indeed, such dexterities, in
the time of Alexander the Great, were so highly
valued that the Athenians presented Aristonicus with
the freedom of their city, and erected a statue in his
honour, on account of his extraordinary skill in the
game of ball !

III.

ROMANS — MrDDLE AGES— MODERN TIMES.

THE ROMANS.

In Rome, during the early ages of the Republic,
bodily exercises were very general. Young and old
appeared in the arena to practise, and statesmen and
scholars employed their leisure hours in strengthening
their muscles. But with the downfall of the Republic
gymnastics gradually degenerated, and at a later period
dexterity in them was no longer an honour, but a dis-
grace, to a free citizen, and they were performed only
on public occasions by slaves and low-class persons as
a means of gaining money.

It would appear that Greek gymnastics and gymnasia,
together with many other Greek institutions, were
introduced into Italy subsequent to the subjection of
Greece to Roman rule, since we find that, in the time
of the Emperors, they were much practised by the
youth of patrician families. But the gymnastics of
Greece, already in their own land undergoing a process
of decay, presented, when transplanted into the land of
the Romans, an essentially altered character. In the
heroic ages, at the time when arts and sciences flourished
most, and during the gradual decadence of Greece, the
chief characteristic of her gymnastics, as we have

36 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

shown above, was more or less their tendency to develop
at one and the same time both moral and physical
strength and health. But the Romans nsed gymnastics
originally only as a means of gratifying their lust of
power, and, at a later period, as a matter of public
display. Gymnastics were used for the first purpose as
a method of military training. They were never, among
the Romans, connected with the inner development of
man ; and even Greek gymnastics, at this epoch, could
afford no beneficial effect in that respect, because, before
being transplanted to the Roman soil, they had already
lost their moral tendency ; and against one-sided and
exaggerated intellectual cultivation no counterbalance
was demanded. Rome was a purely warlike State, whose
citizens, even from childhood, were bound to train their
bodies for military service. Roman gymnastics, there-
fore, being in no sense based upon that idea and con-
sciousness of humanity, which was the predominant
principle in the age of Solon and Pythagoras, gradually
assumed the character of mere brutal manifestation of
strength. Their extravagances bordered on monstrosity,
and reached the highest pitch in the horrible gladiatorial
combats, which were undertaken for hire, which fre-
quently ended with the death of one or both of the
combatants, and which contributed to the deep moral
ruin of the Roman Empire. Athletes and gladiators
began the practice of travelling through the country,
and performed for money before an enervated crowd.

Gymnastics, however, were practised by the nobler
youth of Rome only as a preparation for war. The
foot-races of patrician boys in the Circus Maximus,

The Romans. 3 7

riding on horseback, wrestling, throwing the discus and
the lance, were for them warlike exercises. Swimming,
too, was so highly valued by the Romans as being
serviceable in warfare, that they used to designate an
uneducated man by the expression " neque literas
didicit neque natare." Dancing and singing, indeed,
from a very early period, were practised as arts to
enliven existence. But Scipio Africanus iEmilianus
blames strongly the common dances of free boys and
girls as greatly tending to corrupt their morals. He
says : " The sons and daughters of families of rank are
instructed in deceitful and degrading arts : they go, in
the company of singers, dancers, and musicians, to the
school of the actors. I could for some time scarcely
believe that the patricians would give their children
such an education ; but, having been conducted to one
of the dancing schools, I saw there more than 500 boys
and girls, and among them, alas ! a boy of twelve years
at the utmost, executing a dance that scarcely the
vilest, most abandoned slave would have performed
without a blush." So deep was the fall of free educa-
tion of the body among the Romans. And the reason
was chiefly this, — that the body was not strengthened
for its own sake and for that of the mind ; not for the
harmony of both, but for war and subsidiary purposes.
For military gymnastics, however, no people ever
showed more enthusiasm than the Romans. Their
exercises were performed in the open air on the Campus
Martius, with arms twice as heavy as those carried in
the real combat. At the close of the course, they
plunged, covered with dust and sweat, into the Tiber.

38 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

In five hours (according to Vegetius) they accom-
plished twenty ruillia, or Italian miles, bearing sixty
pounds' weight. Marius never missed a single day on
the Campus Martius. Pompey is said by Sallust to have
been able, at the age of fifty-eight years, to run, jump,
and carry loads, as easily as the most robust soldier in
his army. After any defeat, discipline was strengthened
by new trials and harder labours. " Idleness was
more feared than the enemy/' says Montesquieu;
and he adds, " it was by immense labours that the
Romans maintained their position ; the reason of it
was, in my opinion, that their fatigues were incessant ;
whereas our soldiers pass continually from excessive
work to excessive idleness." It was thus that this
people subjected the world. We read with astonish-
ment how Marius, seeing his soldiers terrified by the
Cimbri, overloads them with work, makes them lay
out roads, dig canals, change the course of rivers,
until, exhausted and subdued by fatigue, they demand
to fight as the end of their hardships. We are asto-
nished at the marches of Csesar and his legions in
Gaul ; and we look with no less wonder than ad-
miration at the remains of those Roman camps, whose
gigantic proportions were, as we know, the work but of
a few days.

But, as soon as drill and labour began to be
neglected, and discipline deteriorated in the army,
the Roman soldier delivered himself over to the con-
quering stroke of the Northern warriors, whose hordes
overflowed the boundaries of the Empire. Nothing is
more melancholy than to follow Gibbon in his descrip-

The Romans. 39

tion of the progressive decay of this great body of men,
which had now no means of frightening the enemy,
beyond the bare remembrance of the legions once so
formidable. These legions had been maintained by
discipline and exercise ; they fell by laxity and inaction.
Into the circle of the usual exercises of the amphi-
theatre we see gradually intruding those gladiatorial
combats of evil memory, which have left an indelible
stain on the character and manners of the Roman
people. They had been instituted for the purpose of
rendering the citizens accustomed to the sight of
bloodshed. Cicero relates that the gladiators, stream-
ing with blood, went, as if in supplication, to ask of
their masters whether they were to continue the
combat, or, in other words, to fight till they were slain.
Mercurialis reports that they drank of the blood of
their vanquished adversaries, in order to excite them-
selves further, and afterwards swallowed water mixed
with ashes. Under the Emperors, these performances,
which were considered as festivals, increased to an
incredible extent, and the people rushed with a kind of
mania to attend them. There were exhibited the
combats between men and the ferocious animals,
brought to Rome at great expense from the remotest
provinces of Africa and Asia. There were seen
Christian martyrs steeping the arena with their blood.
There was seen the Emperor Commodus, rushing
twenty times into the circus, in the midst of the
applause of a crowd drunk with excitement. The cry
of the people was now for but two things, " Panem et
circenses \"

40 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics,

It is difficult to form a due conception of the magni-
ficence of these games. In one single day one hun-
dred lions, dragged from the deserts of Lybia, were
slaughtered. Secret reservoirs were so arranged as
suddenly to inundate the circus, and cleanse it of
torrents of blood. Then appeared vessels on this arti-
ficial lake, and maritime combats succeeded those of
the gladiators. The great amphitheatre could contain
90,000 spectators. What a people and what a
spectacle ! What a greatness and what a barbarism !
What a power and what a corruption !

THE ANCIENT GAULS, IBERIANS, AND GERMANS.

Many other ancient nations might be mentioned as
having highly valued bodily exercises. But I must
limit this sketch to those nations which were closely
connected with our European civilisation and had more
or less influence over it. These were, the ancient
Gauls, Spaniards, and Germans, in which latter term
the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain are included.

It is very remarkable that whereas in Rome and
the countries of the West, gymnastics did not belong
to public education, a " gymnasiarchy" existed in
Massilia, (Marseilles) a Transalpine city of Gaul,
where public games took place with judges of the
combats, " Agonothesia." But the bodily exercises of
the ancient inhabitants of Gaul were different alike
from those of this ancient Greek colony, and from those
of the Roman colonies. It is said that the Gauls prac-
tised a great variety of exercises ; and Strabo even
asserts that those among them whose corpulence in-

Gauls , Iberians, and Germans. 41

creased beyond the prescribed width of the girdle, were
severely punished.

Among the ancient Iberians physical training occu-
pied a high place. According to Strabo, those tribes
that dwelt on the banks of the river Durius (Douro),
lived quite after a Catonian fashion. They per-
formed gymnastic contests in heavy armour on
horseback, feats of wrestling, running, hurling the
sling or balista, and fighting in rank and file. It is
said that the epithet " Balearic" was given to the islands
thus named on account of the skill of their inhabitants
in throwing and managing the balista. Boys practised
this exercise from their earliest youth. The object
aimed at was a loaf of bread suspended in a tree, and
they were not allowed anything to eat till they had hit
the mark.

Of the ancient Germans it is known that they prac-
tised bodily exercises with ardour and perseverance.
These consisted in feats of arms, in hunting, riding,
running, leaping, throwing, and swimming. Rude and
terrible in their commencement were the warlike games
of this people, who, swinging their clubs and hatchets
over their heads, and with a dreadful war-cry, a hun-
dred times broke the Roman legions by the shock of
their charge. From childhood they inured their bodies
to every kind of exertion and hardship. They owed to
their method of physical training their strength,
courage, and self-confidence. Their exercises in arms
varied in character according as they were a prepara-
tion for hunting or a preparation for war. The exer-
cises of the latter class are mentioned by Tacitus. He

42 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

says, f ' Naked youths execute a dance which requires
the performer to leap between swords and lances,
planted (point upwards) in the earth ; an exercise that
gives skill and gains honour, but which never takes
place for money, being performed only for the pleasure
of the spectators." This sword-dance, in which the
German youths attained a high degree of skill, was
performed on festive occasions. Besides these dances
among pointed weapons, the Germans had to undergo
trials of courage, of combats with wild animals, hand-
to-hand fighting, &c, in presence of the men, and
accompanied by animating songs of the bards. After
those youths who had reached the age of manhood had
performed these exercises, bravely and to the satisfac-
tion of the men, they were declared fit to bear arms,
were received among the men, and admitted to their
rights and privileges. Those who excelled in the above-
mentioned games were highly esteemed, and were fre-
quently nominated chiefs of the small warlike expedi-
tions for which free and bold young Germans gathered
together in order to try their courage and power.
Tacitus says that the Germans lifted upwards on a
shield the strongest and bravest comrade as the most
worthy to march at the head of their band. The
more the tribes drew together into confederation, the
more zealously and extensively were bodily exercises
carried on.

Even young women were bound to perform exercises
suited to their constitution, in order to steel their
courage and strengthen and harden themselves. More
than once German women gave brilliant proofs of

Gymnastics in the Middle Ages. 43

courageous heroism. Who does not recall the battles
of the Teutons against the Romans, especially at Aquae
Sextise, where the Teuton women, after their husbands,
kinsfolk, and countrymen had been slain, fought with
their enemies from the barricades of waggons, and,
after having slain a great number, died, with their chil-
dren in their arms, the heroic death of their husbands ?
In a moral aspect the gymnastics of the ancient
Germans were superior to those of the Romans, because
they were not mere displays of strength for cruel spec-
tacles, but were either conducive to soldierly earnest-
ness or valuable as an elevated kind of festive amuse-
ment. The use of gymnastics for the sake of a
general and harmonious human education was, however,
not thought of among this primitive people.

GYMNASTICS IN THE MIDDLE AGES.

We see, from the rude gymnastics of the last-named
ancient nations, how great was the empire of physical
force among them. This continued to be the case
during the Middle Ages ; for the founders of the prin-
cipal modern States of Europe — namely, of Germany and
the greater part of Britain, which the Teutons peopled,
and of France, Italy, and Spain, of which they were the
conquerors, and within which they were for a long pe-
riod the governing race — were the representatives of the
ancient Germanic tribes, among whom bodily force and
prowess was an object of respect and veneration.

The nature and character of the primitive Germanic
races fitted them, beyond any other nation, for the
adoption and practice of gymnastics, and by no people

E

44 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

were bodily exercises cultivated with more zeal, stead-
fastness, and perseverance, although not with so sys-
tematic a method as was observed among the Greeks.
The feats and combats of the Germans were the origin
of the chivalric games of later time. The chief traits
of the former are noted in the " Germania" of Tacitus,
where he describes the Germans as frank, true, fond of
glory, loving honour above all things, and cherishing
and adoring woman. Chivalry had at first a beneficial
influence on European society, re- animated its languish-
ing vigour, and revived at the same time intellect, arts,
and sciences.

But gradually the ancient freedom vanished, and
feudalism, with its pernicious influences, arose. Gym-
nastics gradually ceased to be a system of training
common to the whole nation. They became the privi-
lege of that order from which the nobility sprang ;
and, with the general and universal physical training of
the entire nation, vanished also its moral strength.
Another instance of the fact with which the student
of history meets so frequently — namely, that as bodily
exercises flourished or declined, so the freedom of a
nation rose or fell. After a time there remained, as
poor vestiges of those once so gigantic exercises, only
some faint and crippled imitations of them which lin-
gered on in various forms during the Middle Ages and
gradually disappeared, leaving indeed here and there
some traces which have lasted till present times.

The military education of the nobility during the
Middle Ages, in all States Teutonic either by race or
by conguest, certainly owed its origin to the games of

Gymnastics in the Middle Ages, 45

the ancient Germanic tribes. But such an education
was the exclusive privilege of the nobility, and, thus
limited, it became the basis of the system known as
Chivalry. Among the lower orders, it is true, some
bodily exercises, which faintly represented the ancient
athletic training, continued to exist in several countries.
Among the communities in which they were main-
tained may be mentioned the once famous schools of
arms, which flourished for a long time in numerous
German cities ; such as Frankfurt, Augsburg, Nurn-
berg, Prague, and the universities ; the former of
which were composed of mechanics and tradesmen,
and endowed with important privileges. A less bene-
ficial usage of the Teuton was the duel, which has
descended to our times, though much changed from its
original character. The single combat seems to have
been in its commencement an element of Teutonic
law, taking place by judicial decree — an ordeal or
judgment of God.

In the Middle Ages all bodily training was restricted
to military gymnastics. The nobles, the future
knights, learned from childhood to handle the bow,
to manage the sword and lance, to spring upon a
horse, to bear the weight of armour. About 900 years
ago, under the German King, Henry I.,* tournamentsf

* Henry assembled large bodies of cavalry against the inroads
of the Hungarians, who repeatedly devastated Germany. This
is said to have given rise to chivalry.

t Tournament is derived from the ancient Teutonic word
tumen, which signifies to bend, govern, direct, turn. As early
as 1023 it occurs in old German works. Notker uses it in his

B 2

46 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

were first instituted, which by their national import-
ance and moral tendency, though in a different form,
possessed in many respects a genuine Greek character.

Although the gymnastics of the high-born youth,
considered in their influence on national and individual
education, were very imperfect, since only "knights were
admitted to combats in the tournament, they neverthe-
less served, in spite of the prevailing sharp distinction
of classes, to arouse the consciousness of the nation,
and to ennoble intellectual and moral life. The whole
people were allowed to be present at such spectacles;
and they had access, besides, to the rich poetry of
chivalry.

Side by side with chivalry, and influenced by its
example, the class of burghers rose gradually to an
ever-increasing prosperity, to a greater amount of
freedom, to a noble self-reliance, to mental culture,
and, finally, to a common military organisation of their
class, which, assisted by martial games, rendered them
capable of self-defence. The path to this result was
opened to the order of burghers by chivalry, as not a
few knights were in the habit of taking up their abode
in the cities. Unfortunately, in many countries the
great mass of the nobles spared no means to suppress
and extinguish the rising power of the people, and, in
consequence, bodily exercises disappeared in many

translation of the Psalms. In an old fable, published by
Busching, the lion is called " a bold turner," and it was in
former times the epithet of a young soldier. The term has
been revived in Germany in its old sense ; and " turnen" now
means to execute gymnastics ; " turner" signifies a gymnast.

Gymnastics in the Middle Ages. 47

places, popular poetry died away, and popular life was
arrested.

Tournaments filled the place of the combats of the
gymnasium and the circus. In them, likewise, blood-
shed would too often occur. But what a difference
was that between the gladiator slaves and the loyal and
courteous knights, the flower and crown of nobility.
Kings themselves descended into the lists. No com-
batant was more redoubtable than Richard the Lion-
hearted. The chivalrous Henry II. of France was
accidentally wounded in a festive tournament by the
hand of the Count of Montgomery, and died of his
wound.

A few words will serve to sketch the fashion and
order of those grand festivals of the Middle Ages.
The knights were distinguished as first-challengers
(tenants) and poursuivants. The former proposed and
awaited the combat ; the others came to defy them.
If one of the poursuivants struck the shield of the tenant
with the wood of his lance, there was a simple
encounter ; if with the iron, a desperate combat for
life ensued. They fought in heavy armour, first on
horseback and afterwards on foot. The terrible shocks,
the weight of the arms, the dust, sufficed to despatch
many a jousting knight, whom his squires lifted up
dead, though perhaps without wounds. Others perished
by the sword ; and the number of victims enhanced
the splendour of the festival. The knights were
animated by the crowd of spectators, by the sight of
kings, princes, and, above all, fair ladies of the Court,
to whom they offered the homage of their triumphs : a

48 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

courtesy which makes us forget for the moment the
rudeness of the manners of the time. We find in the
description of more than one tournament a genuine
Greek enthusiasm for bodily exercises and games.

To such a degree was physical force held to be the
first quality in a warrior that the great poets of the
age, Ariosto and Tasso, represent their heroes as
breaking with the blows of their sword the strongest
best-tempered armour; cleaving an enemy in twain
down to the girdle, lifting enormous blocks of stone, and
wielding levers with which they broke the gates of cities.

It may easily be imagined that such men sprang
from vigorous fathers — from men like those described
in the old German song of the Nibelungen. Hardy
from childhood upwards, always with the lance in their
grasp, the cuirass on their back, and a high sense of
honour in their soul, they were of a cast of character
superior to that of modern generations. It is no
wonder that, notwithstanding their comparatively small
number, they were able, during centuries, to keep
under their yoke the entire commonalty of the lands
in which they lived.

GYMNASTICS IN MODERN TIMES.

The use of fire-arms superseded all mighty suits of
armour, and relaxed the muscles of steel that had
moved within them. With the modern epoch the
reign of strength ceases, to give place to a kind of
feverish effort towards arts, sciences, and discoveries.
Bodily exercises, likewise, being one of the character-
istic traits of the Middle Ages, disappeared with the

Gymnastics in Modem Times. 49

passing of that epoch into the modern age. There
remained only some kinds of military drill, to accustom
soldiers to the trials of a campaign ; and some exercises
and games, which have been preserved down to our
times, such as wrestling, boxing, the use of the bow,
and others. With the decline of the practice of self-
defence on the part of the independent citizens, bodily
exercises also ceased among them. Gradually, physical
training, through which nations become great — which
secures to men not only bodily but mental vigour —
came to be despised and ridiculed as being of brutal
tendency. Into the place of a manly bearing and
dress stepped a stiff attitude and walk; the toilette-
table, with powder and rouge ; the bobwig, ramillies,
and buzzwig claimed now the time of youth as well as
of old age; man, the king of creation, became a cari-
cature of the human race, or, to speak in Darwinian
phrase, retraced his steps and became again an ape,
shambling along with a stooping gait, with a cadaverous
complexion, crippled in body and mind, in consequence
of a luxurious, enervating, and consequently degene-
rated life.

A succession of years passed before a voice was raised
against such an education, such habits, which would in
the end have led the human race towards irretrievable
decay.

The world was impelled into a new phase of develop-
ment by the spirit of the Reformation. With that
vast movement commenced a new era in education — an
education truly human, entering the lowest cottage,
embracing the whole of society, without distinction of

50 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

class, comprehending mind and body — this was one of
the gifts of the Reformation.

Luther preached an education, resting not only on
divine, but also on natural principles. In accordance
with the spirit of the new education, gymnastics, after
having been buried in long oblivion, were again to
appear in the service of training the young.

Luther was ardently desirous to see them revived.
He expresses his enthusiasm for them in the following
words: — "It was well thought and arranged by the
ancients, that young people should exercise themselves,
and have something creditable and useful to do.
Therefore, I like these two exercises and amusements
best — viz., musica and chivalrous games, or bodily
exercises, as fencing, wrestling, running, leaping, and
others. The former (musica) drives away the cares of
the heart and melancholy thoughts, and the temptations
of the Fiend; it makes men milder, gentler, more
modest and sensible, fit for anything, and always cheer-
ful. It makes them forget anger, unchastity, pride,
and other vices, acting the part of a disciplinarian or
task-master. The other renders the limbs free and
adroit ; it keeps the body in health by leaping, run-
ning, and other exercises. The greatest advantage is,
however, that with such bodily exercises one does not
fall into carousing, debauchery, gambling, hard drink-
ing, and other kinds of lawlessness, as are unfortunately
seen now in the towns and at the Courts. This evil
comes to pass, if such honest exercises and chivalrous
games are despised and neglected. Not to mention
that it is truly needful in these times for us Germans

Gymnastics in Modern Times. 5 1

to be fit and always prepared for joining the army and
for battle. For, verily, our boys will have to defend
land and people, and to be warriors. They are like
arrows, expected to hit the mark. The Lord gives
them, and shoots them off. Our boys must be brought
up earnestly and strictly. They are to learn privation
at an early age, to love work, bear hardships, and shun
no exertions. For they must go forth into the battle of
life and into war, in which only hardship and misery
are to be borne. Solomon is, on this point, a most
kingly schoolmaster. He does not forbid to youth to
be among the people and to be merry, as the monks
used to do to their pupils. For of the latter most will
become mere loggerheads and blockheads. A young
man, so dammed up, is like a young tree which could
otherwise bear fruit, planted in a narrow flower-pot. To
young people such a tyrannical monkish constraint is
quite injurious, and joy and amusement are as highly
necessary for them as eating and drinking. For they
remain the more in good health. The virtues with
which we are to furnish our boys are, principally, fear
of God, industry, patriotism, moderation, courage, and
humility. With such weapons they are well fitted out
for every strife, for they have ' a sound soul in a sound
body."'

It is true, that during Luther's lifetime little was
done for the restoration of gymnastics. But they were
at least recalled to mind. Luther's plan of a general
education of man was based upon the ancient idea — of
a comprehensive development of the human being, such
as should render him perfect intellectually, morally,

52 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

and aesthetically. Unfortunately his lofty aims were
partly lost in the armed strife that soon awoke to
resound for nearly half a century throughout Germany,
and laid waste that once united, strong, and flourishing
country. His plans, therefore, met then, and still
meet, with numerous impediments, such as imperfect
comprehension of a complete education of man on the
part of many educators, who cannot see the utility of
a good physical training, and who pay a too exclusive
attention to intellectual culture.

Besides Luther, his friend Melancthon and the Swiss
reformer Zwingli, likewise advocated education on the
plan followed by the ancients ; and he was further
supported in his view by his pupils Valentin Trotzen-
dorf (a.d. i 531), Rector of the College of Goldberg,
andNeander(A.D. 1550), Rector of the newly-established
college at Ilfeld. Both were as enthusiastic for bodily
exercises as their two great masters. They superin-
tended the exercises of boys, praised the dexterous and
skilful, and blamed the awkward and lazy ones.

Camerarius of Bamberg, also, in his u Rules of Life
for Boys," which appeared about a.d. 1540, recommends
running, leaping, wrestling, and other games.

A change in the system of education in Germany,
unfavourable to the revival of gymnastics, was brought
about by Johannes Sturm (a.d. 1538), the famous
Rector of the Academy of Strasburg. To study Greek
and Latin, and the ancients in general, was his one
notion of education. The acquisition of the Greek
language and the methods by which it was to be
attained, were studied most thoroughly. But the prac-

Gymnastics in Modern Times. 53

tical application of the Greek mode of education was
left entirely out of the question. High-spirited youth
was no longer to be permitted to bestir itself in the
joyous sports befitting the age. There was strict pro-
hibition against climbing, wrestling, bathing, and
swimming. Thus, for a considerable time, gymnastics
were shut out from schools by a mode of education
similar to that which was followed in convents.

Against Sturm's system the celebrated physician
Mercurialis (1 530-1606) protested. He brought back
the Hellenic gymnastics to the recollection of his
readers by his well-known work, Be arte gymnasticd.
The usefulness of gymnastics was there set forth, though
more from a hygienic than from an educational point
of view.

But the time was still distant which was to restore
to the human body its natural rights. Now and then,
after long intervals, champions appeared to advocate
such a restoration, but with little effect.

A century after Mercurialis, the English physician
Thomas Fuller (165 4- 17 34) entered the lists as a
defender of the Greek plan of education. Like his
predecessor, he also valued gymnastics less as a part of
education than for the sake of their dietetical and
orthopaedic application. The opinion of both these
writers was naturally influenced by their profession as
medical men.

For the advocacy of a freer and more comprehensive
education, including that of the body, very great merit
is due, both to Montaigne in the sixteenth, and to
Locke in the seventeenth, century.

54 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

It was, however, not till the second half of last cen-
tury, that effeminate and corrupt period, that a more
natural training found its way into educational institu-
tions, which hitherto had been for the young places of
intellectual and physical torture. J. J. Rousseau ap-
peared as a strong opponent of monastic education.
Stimulated by the ideas of Montaigne and Locke, he
advocated, in his " Emile" (1762), that truly comprehen-
sive ideal of instruction, which aims at the development,
in harmonious proportion, of body and mind alike. He
recommeuded the restoration of Greek gymnastics.

Rousseau's theories found a practical application in
the philanthropic institutions of Basedow, Salzmann,
Campe, Pestalozzi, and others. There gymnastics once
more occupied the place due to them ; and a special
care was bestowed upon them by Salzmann.* The
latter found an able co-operator and successor in Guts-
muths, who devoted himself with an indefatigable zeal
to the revival of gymnastics. He tells us this in the
following words: "In the year 1785, I entered, when
still but a youth, the school of Schnepfenthal, near
Gotha, and thereupon Salzmann, its head, conducted
me to a place, saying, 'Here are our gymnastics; within
this little space we amuse ourselves daily with five
exercises, though these are still only in their rudiments.
These exercises had been first tried at Dessau, where
Salzmann had previously been. He soon entrusted me
with the direction of this first beginning of exercises.

* Salzmann's German work on Gymnastics appeared in
an English translation, " Gymnastics for Youth," as early as
1790 and 1800.

Gymnastics in Modern Times. 55

All that I found out from ancient usages, from the his-
torical remains of earlier and later antiquity, all that
reflection and sometimes chance offered to me, was
brought forward for the sake of amusing, experiments.
Thus the chief exercises increased, were subdivided
into new forms and tasks, and were subjected to rules,
often laid down with great difficulty. Thus originated,
after seven years' experiments (1793), in the first
edition of my ' Gymnastics/ my first attempt to call
attention to a subject that had been quite forgotten, and
only existed in history."

While Gutsmuths, with a brilliant success, was work-
ing in Schnepfenthal for the revival of gymnastics, a
similar result was attained in Dessau, under the direc-
tion of Vieth.* The enthusiasm of this latter for the
cause of bodily training may be seen in his work,
" Encyclopaedia of Bodily Exercises."

In France another physician, Tissot, appeared as
an advocate of this practice, but at first with hardly any
success, for he, like his predecessors, Mercurialis and
Fuller, recommended it solely from a hygienic point
of view, advocating medical gymnastics, but forgetting
their educational influence. It was, on the other hand
a due attention to this latter point which had secured
the success of gymnastics in Germany.

In Denmark, soon after the successful labours of
Gutsmuths and Vieth became known, Nachtigall ren-
dered these exercises so popular that, both in town

* At the beginning of this century Vieth's work was pub-
lished in England by Strutt, with the title, "The Academy
of Games."

56 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

and country, the young practised them vigorously.
They were likewise admitted as a means of rational
education into Sweden, under the direction of Ling,
well known for his thorough theoretical and prac-
tical knowledge of this science. Ling was a man of
great natural gifts. He developed a peculiar system
of gymnastics. His chief merit consists in his having
drawn attention to their efficacy in the treatment of
disease. He, however, did not obtain in his country
the same general encouragement as Nachtigall found in
Denmark.

In Germany gymnastics made extraordinary progress,
in the second decade of the present century, under J aim,
a man of the greatest skill in the art, of which, indeed,
in its modern use, he is justly esteemed the founder.*
His idea was to unite the people of Germany into one
nation, intellectually, morally, and physically strong
against the threatening enemy of the West. Boldly and
vigorously, a real reformer, he advanced towards his high
ideal, the realisation of which was attained with a sur-
prising rapidity, notwithstanding the many impediments
that stood in his way. The number of his pupils in-
creased daily. His ideas of a revived national education
were in this work offered to the nation, and were enthusi-

* The author has given, page xiii., a biographical sketch of this
remarkable man, to whose memory this Essay is dedicated.
Jahn was indeed the founder of modern Gymnastics. Many
parts of the apparatus, such as horizontal bars, parallel bars,
and others, were invented and introduced by him ; and to him
is owed the plan on which the exercises are conducted.

Gymnastics in Modern Times. 57

astically received. Soon gymnastics took a national cha-
racter. Boys, youths, and men, of all classes of society,
took part in the exercises, and gymnasia sprang up in
all parts. Nor was it long before, from these gymnasia,
thousands of " Turners" of all ages rushed forth on a
given signal as volunteers to the unfurled standard of
their Fatherland, to prove, in a deadly struggle for
freedom and country, the strength and self-reliance
which they had acquired in the gymnasium.

After the German War of Independence, the effect
of gymnastic training was fully recognised. On their
return from the battle-fields, the gymnasts went again
to their work with vigorous zeal. Gymnastics had
gained a considerable importance, through the valour
and endurance shown by the Turners during the war.
Gymnasia were established throughout Germany, from
the primary school to the university.

Jahn had a faithful fellow-worker in his pupil Eiselen,
who laboured with an enthusiasm as great as that of
his master for the extension of gymnastics. In the
year 18 16 appeared the work entitled " Deutsche
Turnkunst" (German Gymnastics), by Jahn and
Eiselen.

After the heavy sacrifices which the Germans had
made for the independence of their country, they con-
fidently reckoned upon obtaining all those improved
social and political institutions which had been pro-
mised by their many rulers in the hour of need. But
they were doomed to be speedily disappointed ; and
none among them more so than Jahn and his disciples.
In his lectures on German nationality he was frequently

58 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

carried away by his indignation. His Turners also,
gave utterance to their discontent. Gymnastics soon
began to be stigmatised as dangerous to the State. In
the year 1819 the gymnasia throughout Prussia, and in
nearly all Germany, were closed. Jahn, the patriot,
was proscribed as a demagogue. Up to the year 1830
the gymnasia in Germany remained deserted. Gym-
nastics were, however, tolerated in Wurtemberg, and
permission granted to teach them.

I have entered into a rather lengthy description of
the development of gymnastics in Germany, in order
to show the great influence they had there, not only on
education, but even more on the national spirit : a
characteristic feature well worthy the attention of the
student of history. Whilst in other countries gym-
nastics were and still are practised only by comparatively
few, and the number of gymnasia is small ; in Germany
the " Turners" amounted, before the suppression of
the gymnasia, to hundreds of thousands.

The new art of gymnastics created by Gutsmuths
and Jahn had been early introduced into Switzerland.
This country, formerly an integral part of the German
empire, has never ceased to remain in close intel-
lectual alliance with Germany. In this community
it was Clias who organised a system of bodily exer-
cises. In 181 1 he began his labours in the field of
physical education in the private educational establish-
ment at Gottstatt. In 18 14, when he was an officer
in the Artillery, he introduced gymnastics among the
soldiers. His exertions being very successful, he was
appointed by the Government Professor of Gymnastics

Gymnastics in Modern Times, 59

in the Academy of Berne. From Berne the practice
soon spread further, and was introduced into the
principal cities of the Republic, into the colleges, into
the educational institutions of Pestalozzi, Fellenberg,
and others. In the year 18 16, Clias published his first
work, entitled, "Anfangsgriinde der Gymnastik oder
Turnkunst" (Elements of Gymnastics). The system
of Clias was soon introduced into France, Italy, and
England.

In France the practice was advocated not only by
Clias, but also by Colonel Amoros, who subsequently
(in 18 18) introduced them into Spain. He followed
in the main the ideas of Gutsmuths and other German
writers on the subject. In the same year the gymnasium
of Grenelle, in Paris, was founded.* These first masters
of a restored art had numerous pupils, and their ideas
have been carried into practice in the French army

* It is due to M. Lacroix, surgical instrument maker in
Paris, to record here the fact that about the year 1814 he
established in his house a kind of medical gymnastic apparatus,
consisting in a ladder attached to a mast. The "balanciers"
were arranged in such a manner as to favour the extension and
elasticity of the muscles of the neck, arms, legs, and feet. There
was, besides, a rope to imitate the exercise of ringing of bells, and
another one to imitate the drawing of water from a well, a mecha-
nism destined to act upon the vertebral column, and the convex
part of the body. Dr. Friedlaender — " De l'education physique
de l'homme," Paris, 181 5— from whose book this notice has
been taken, says that hell-ringing was formerly a favourite
exercise of the English, an assertion confirmed by travellers who
visited England in the 15th and 1 6th century ; among others,
by Paul Hentzner, a traveller of note. Young gentlemen used
to cool their exuberant spirits by ringing the city bells for the
edification of the citizens.

60 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

and ill many educational institutions. The regiment
in which gymnastics were especially and vigorously
practised were the " Chasseurs de Vincennes/-' formed
under Louis Philippe, afterwards called "Chasseurs
d'Afrique/' and the corps of the " Pompiers," which
have attained a high degree of skill.

In 1843 gymnastics were more extensively intro-
duced into the French army. French military gymnas-
tics did not differ essentially from those carried on at
that time in Germany.

Besides Amoros, Triat, who appeared at a later
period, was very successful in Paris. He used in
his gymnasium a great variety of complicated
machines, intended to develop the various systems
of muscles.

In 1822* Clias was invited over to England. In
this country, having been invested with the rank of
captain, he introduced gymnastics into the army and
navy. He obtained in 1823 (20th of March) an appoint-
ment as Professor of Gymnastics in the Iloyal Military

* It appears that at the beginning of the present century
various efforts were made to introduce German gymnastics into
this country. It has been mentioned that Yieth's work was
translated into English. But how far those efforts succeeded
the author has not been able to find out. It is, however,
beyond doubt that seventy years ago a great interest was felt
in bodily training, which was not limited to the male sex. Dr.
Friedlaender, in his work, " De l'education physique de
1'homme," Paris, 1815, says that at the beginning of this
century the foot-race was greatly practised in England, not
only by boys and young men, but particularly also in ladies'
schools. " C'est pour executer ces exercices avec decence, qu'on
leur a donne des pantalons."

Gymnastics in Modern Times. 61

Academy, Woolwich, with a salary of 200/. a year, for
two lessons a week. In 1825 was published in London
his work, w Elementary Course of Gymnastic Exer-
cises." He occupied his post in the Academy until Sep-
tember 4, 1825, when instruction in gymnastics was
entrusted to such non-commissioned officers as were
considered capable of giving it. But, in the Academy
as well as in the army, gymnastics gradually fell into
disuse, and have only been partially revived of late
after a long interval. The obvious cause of the rapid
disuse of gymnastics is the want of interest, the
unfavourable prejudices, in the minds of the educated,
who disregarded this important branch of instruc-
tion.

Gymnastics were, it is true, introduced into a
number of English private educational establishments,
at the same period as into the army. As early as 1826,
a Gymnastic Society, directed by a German of the
name of Volkern, was founded, and during the first
months of its existence had upwards of 900 members.
The Society practised in Wharton Street, Pentonville.
But as in the army and the schools, so here, gymnastics
soon fell into disuse.

In the year 1823, the year of Captain Clias's ap-
pointment in the Royal Military Academy, were
published, "Instructions in Gymnastic Exercises as
taught and practised in the Gymnastic Institutions of
Germany. By a Military Officer." This is an ex-
cellent and useful little work, with eleven illustrative
plates. The anonymous author, who says that he had
studied the system in Germany, mentions in his

f2

62 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

preface, that whilst his work was in the publisher's
hands, he discovered that a work of a similar nature
had recently been published. The author has not been
able to see this latter work.

In Switzerland, the pupils of Clias continued the
work he had begun, and the study of gymnastics
received a new impulse in the year 1832, by the foun-
dation of the great Swiss Gymnastic Association,
which spread over all the Cantons, and included
members of the learned professions, of universities,
and of all kinds of trades. Annual festivities and
numerous publications largely increased the importance
and strength of this association. An influential
feature of Swiss gymnastics was that they were intro-
duced into the training colleges of teachers, especially
at Miinchenbuchsee, and were directed by such emi-
nent professors as the German Adolf Spiess, well
known by his important work on gymnastics, his
adaptation of them to children of both sexes, and his
systematic treatment of the whole subject. In these
training colleges, gymnastics were taught as a regular
branch of instruction, with the object that whatever
was learnt should be again imparted, in the primary
State schools. In consequence, gymnastics soon be-
came general in Switzerland . and were introduced into
primary schools of country districts. In the Swiss
school regulation of 1835, a special stress is laid on
<c the gradual introduction of gymnastics, by aid of the
State." The Council of Education strongly recom-
mended them to all teachers, as belonging to their

Gymnastics in Modern Times. 63

calling, and promised assistance. In 1849 a new
school regulation directed that gymnastics should be
introduced into the scheme of the entire system of
education, as an obligatory branch of instruction.*

In Germany the political reaction against gymnastics
did not succeed in finally extinguishing them. After
an interval of nearly twenty years many new champions
came forward — with more matured opinions, and with
a firmer conviction of the advantage of bodily exercises —
and laboured to revive them. The first impulse in this
new movement was given by Dr. Lorinser, physician to
a board of health, in a work entitled " Zum Schutz der
Gesundheit in den Schulen" (For the Protection of
Health in Schools), published in 1836. This work ex-
cited general attention. Lorinser made it a reproach
to the schools that with their present organisation they
were less really developing the intellectual faculties
than mechanically filling the heads of youths with a
mass of mere instruction, and that at the expense of
cheerfulness of temperament, of the student's origi-
nality, and of his bodily health. A great number of
opinions of eminent men, pronounced on this work,
advocated the re- opening of gymnasia as the only means
of preserving body and mind in health and vigour.
The gymnasia were opened again. Men of great merit,
as Werner, Diesterweg, Moennich, and others, addressed

* An excellent little prize essay was published, in 1852,
on gymnastics, with special regard to Switzerland, by John
Niggeler : " Gymnastics, their Influence and Promotion." The
writer of this essay has made use of it in various places.

64 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

the nation, and strongly recommended the restoration
of gymnastics. The advice of these men was not only
listened to but followed. In the year 1844 a great
step was made in favour of physical education. By
decrees of the Cabinets of several States of the German
Confederation, it was placed on a better basis. Normal
schools were founded for the education of the teachers
of gymnastics, and with a view of establishing the art
upon thoroughly scientific principles. Besides the
gymnastics which were practised in schools and colleges
of every kind, numerous associations and clubs were
established by young men themselves for the cultivation
of bodily exercises. Gymnastic gatherings and festivals
now took place at regular intervals, at places succes-
sively agreed upon — a plan resembling the arrange-
ments of the British Association. By this means the
interest in physical education was greatly increased.
A fresh and truly youthful life again entered the schools
of Germany.

But soon the practice of athletic sports was again to
incur unpopularity. As in the time of the War of
Independence, as in the time of later political agita-
tions, so again in 1848, gymnastics were used as a
means to promote the union and liberty of the German
nation. Those Germans — and their number was con-
tinually augmented — who worked together to restore
their country to its former unity and independence,
employed every means to attain their end, and none
appeared to them more effectual than invigorating
gymnastic exercises. Thus, in the political commo-
tions of 1848-9, " the Turners" again took an active

Gymnastics in Modern Times. 65

part in the struggle ; and, in consequence, their exer-
cises were again, in some countries, laid under a pro-
hibition. This did not, however, continue long in
force. The value of gymnastics was in course of time
again acknowledged.

Nevertheless, though such exercises are now practised
both in secondary and in primary schools, they have
not yet become as general as they ought to be ; and,
perhaps even in consequence of their having become a
regular branch of education in schools, and having
been introduced into the German armies., which now
comprise all the able young men of the country, they
have lost a great part of the enthusiastic favour with
which they were once regarded, and the clubs and
festivals have decreased in number and brilliancy.
These are, however, even at the present time, numerous
enough to form a considerable body. Statistics furnish
some very interesting data as to the part which the
German gymnasts took in the Franco-German war.
The number of their societies amounted, on the 1st of
August, 1869, to 1360, comprising 110,353 members.
Of these societies 105 1, with their 81,737 members,
attest their activity during the war. Of these members
14,909 were summoned to join their regiments; and,
of these latter, 11,591 were on duty in the enemy's
country, 1243 were wounded, 617 were killed or died
of their wounds, 191 succumbed to disease or fatigue,
580 were decorated with the iron cross, 1119 attended
upon their sick and wounded comrades, in the enemy's
country. Of the total number 5961 per cent, were
between the ages of 2 1 and 30. Gymnastics have also

66 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

been introduced into the United States, where the'
numerous Germans and many of the Anglo-Americans
practise them. The German-American gymnastic
societies form a body of at least 50,000 men or more,
and they played an important part in the struggle be-
tween freedom and slavery in the United States — being,
it is needless to say, ranged on the side of freedom.

In 1 86 1 a German gymnastic society was formed in
London. This society is the parent of the large
number of English gymnastic clubs. Although it was
founded, and is still directed, by Germans, the number
of English soon surpassed that of German members,
and the society has trained and sent forth thousands
of English gymnasts.*

In the English army, gymnastics attracted more
general attention after the Crimean war, when the
establishment of gymnasia as a means of training and

* Two Germans residing in London were the chief promoters
and supporters of this still flourishing society. Mr. Ernest
Ravenstein, the son of a celebrated professor of gymnastics in
Frankfurt, late of the statistical department in the War Office,
is one of them. Mr. Ravenstein published, with Mr. John Hull,
gymnasiarch of Liverpool, an excellent " Handbook of Gymnas-
tics and Athletics" (London, Trubner and Co.), and obtained the
first prize of the National Olympian Association for an essay
on " Physical Education, with special reference to our Elemen-
tary Schools." He was president of the German Gymnastic
Society for many years. Mr. Roman Schweitzer, a gentleman
well known to the athletic and gymnastic circles of this
country, in former times one of the first gymnasts of Germany
and Switzerland, has ever since the establishment of the
German Society (1861) to the present day superintended, as
gymnasiarch, the exercises of this society, in the success of which
he has had a great share.

Character of Modern Gymnastics. 67

recreation was one of the many projected reforms
undertaken by Lord Herbert. In 1859 General
Hamilton and Inspector General Dr. Logan were
commissioned to inspect the systems in use on the
Continent ; and they presented a very interesting re-
port, which was subsequently published. A grant of
money was immediately made for a gymnasium at
Aldershot ; the institution was placed under the direc-
tion of Colonel Hammersley, and excellent results fol-
lowed from the practice thus afforded. At a later
period, by order of Lord de Grey, gymnasia were built
in all barracks ; and a complete code of instructions,
drawn up by Mr. MacLaren of Oxford, was published
by authority.*

The object of the foregoing historical outline of
gymnastics is to show that such exercises are not a
modern invention, but an ancient, long-forgotten art.
I earnestly hope that it may, before long, be again
brought into general use. Before concluding this
chapter I will give a few lines to the description of
modern gymnastic exercises.

CHARACTER OF MODERN GYMNASTICS.

The practice of a modern gymnasium is strikingly
different from the form of ancient usage. Here we
find no dignity of presiding magistrates, judges of con-

* Mr. MacLaren has published several valuable works on
gymnastics, and has greatly contributed to the extension of
physical training in this country. His services in the army
have been highly important. He published in 1862 a little
work, "Military System of Gymnastic Exercises."

68 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

tests, or national rewards; no baths for exhausted
competitors, no halls for innumerable spectators.
Modern gymnasia are merely spacious inclosures,
mostly constructed open to the air, though occasionally
covered in, where the number of pupils does not, un-
fortunately, permit any sort of comparison with those
who were wont to assemble in the ancient gymnasia.
The most prominent feature in the modern structure
is the climbing scaffold, a horizontal beam elevated at
various heights and supported by perpendicular joists
at both its extremities. Attached to this contrivance
are ladders of wood and of rope, fixed or suspended
climbing poles of different diameters, smooth ropes,
ropes with knots or rings, &c. Other contrivances
are, single and parallel bars of different heights, fixed
or movable, the oscillating beam, step-ladders, wooden
horses, machines for high jump, trenches for leaping
at distance, &c. &c.

The exercises of the climbing-scaffold are designed to
teach the various modes of climbing or scaling to any
elevation, whether by means of perches, ropes, or masts ;
to traverse a narrow path without fear of falling ; to lift
and impel the body by the strength of the arms. There
is nothing more varied and graceful than vaulting on the
parallel bars and on the wooden horse. The so-called
" pass riviere" accustoms the practitioner to pass
through a great distance, flinging himself through the
air. By means of the oscillating beam the sailor's step
is acquired. In short, all the exercises conduce more
or less to the development of strength, address, self-
reliance, and boldness. In many gymnasia great use

Character of Modern Gymnastics. 69

is made of weights of various forms, either as single or
as belonging to more complex machines, or gliding on
inclined planes, the whole combined in such a manner
as to bring into play a particular system of muscles.
Among the weights, the use of which tends to develop
the brachial, humeral, and thoracic muscles, may be
mentioned the clubs, dumb-bars, and dumb-bells,
formerly known to the Romans. These exercises have
the great advantage that they can be practised at
home. They are excellent for strengthening a weak
or delicate chest. They must, however, be performed
with caution, with weights, small at first, and gradually
increased.

As in ancient times, so also in our own, medical, or
rather hygienic, are closely allied to educational
gymnastics. They flourish or fall together. Upon
the whole, the latter ought, with very slight qualifica-
tion, to be the same as the former. All such practices
ought to be hygienic, for many persons attend the
gymnasium for health's sake, to counteract special
injurious effects of their profession. Medical gymnas-
tics might be distinguished into hygienic and thera-
peutic— the former belonging more to the domain of
gymnastics in general, the latter forming a distinct class,
very different from the others. The range of modern
hygienic gymnastics comprehends exercises which be-
long to the gymnasia, but it includes others which
require for their performance particular conditions and
places. The writers on hygienic science usually dis-
tinguish them into active, passive, and mixed exercises.
Active exercises are — marching, racing, leaping, danc.

70 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

ing, various games of ball, nine-pins, billiards, fencing,
boxing, swimming, skating, vocal exercises. Passive
exercises are — navigation, and driving in different
vehicles. Mixed exercises are — active navigation, row-
ing, riding, &c.

Of therapeutic gymnastics this is not the place to
treat. They are used for a great variety of purposes ;
and often, in cases of paralysis, curvature of the spine,
&c, with great success. I must refer those who wish
to know more on this point to the works of Ling, to
whom great praise is due for the development of this
circle of gymnastics. Also the Germans, Schreber
and Berend, have handled this subject successfully.*

Marching, running, leaping, and dancing develop
principally the lower limbs. The figure of professional
dancers is well known — the prominent haunches, volu-
minous thighs, and largely developed calves — while the
upper parts of the body are disproportionately feeble
and slender. Running, indeed, acts less upon the
lower limbs than upon the respiratory system. Billiards
constitute one of the most agreeable of moderate
exercises, and are well fitted to promote the work of
digestion. Fencing gives to the movements strength
and precision ; but it is necessary to fence with both
arms, otherwise the right side, acquiring a dispropor-
tionate dimension, will cause a defect in the equilibrium
of the two lateral portions of the body. Natation is a

* The chief representative of Ling's therapeutic gymnastics
in England is Dr. Both, who has published a series of valuable
works on the system, which he has further developed.

Character of Modern Gymnastics. Ji

valuable resource during the heat of summer, as it
enables us to carry on violent movements without sus-
taining that deperdition of strength, which is the
inevitable result of a continued muscular action under
the influence of an elevated temperature. The entire
motive system is put into activity by the swimmer, who,
in order to keep himself on the surface of the water, is
obliged to employ greater effort than is required by
animals, by reason of the position of the human head
and of the bucco-nasal cavity; the conditions are
changed by swimming on the back. Hunting secures
very varied movement. " Venatori necesse est deam-
bulare, currere, saltare, modo erectum, modo curvum
stare, vociferari etiam, summatim omnes corporis
partes exerceri." (Ramazzini.)

Tissot, in his treatise, insists upon vocal exercises ;
reading aloud, singing, declamation ; to play on wind
instruments is, in his opinion, the best means of
strengthening weak chests. Dr. Lallemand asserts
that, among singers, he has never met with a phthi-
sical subject. The result of vocal exercises is the
growth in volumen of the lungs and larynx ; in exchange
the excited buccal secretions render digestion more
prompt and the appetite keener. There results from
this exercise, however, a tendency to diaphoresis. We
often see an orator in violent perspiration in the midst of
an audience, whilst his hearers are benumbed with cold.
For teachers, advocates, preachers, lecturers, and singers,
vocal exercise constitutes to some degree their active
life, and counterbalances the evil effects of their seden-
tary habits.

72 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics.

In order to render any wheeled vehicle a really
effective medical exercise, it is necessary to avoid those
carriages which are so well hung that one might imagine
one had never left one's easy- chair. The horseman is
at once active and passive. He principally uses the
adductor muscles of the thigh and those of the sacro-
lumbai'is. Hygienic gymnastics possess few exercises
so salutary as that of riding on horseback, if practised
in moderation, is found to be. In this, as in all other
exercises, abuse must be avoided.

Any one who has occasionally practised rowing will
be able to comprehend the advantage resulting from
it. Varied as it is by pauses of rest, it can, although
demanding violent exertion, be continued a long time.
It strengthens the muscles of the arms, especially
those in the pectoral region, and, at the same time,
those of the loins.

MODERN POPULAR ATHLETIC EXERCISES, GAMES,
AND SPORTS.

Besides the above-described systematic educational
and medical gymnastics, we find, in different countries
of Europe, various kinds of athletic exercises, games,
and sports, several of which have come to us from
remote ages, and remind us of the ancient gymnastics
from which they are derived. The boxers of England
recall to us the pugilists ; the English, German, Swiss,
and French wrestlers bring back to the mind the com-
bats of the Greeks. On the other hand, the bull- fights

Modern Popular Athletic Exercises. J 3

of the Spaniards remind us of those terrible and demo-
ralising scenes in the Roman amphitheatre.

But these modern popular games and sports are not
national and general in the sense in which those from
which they take their origin were so. Nor are the
other exercises, which are derived from those of the
Middle Ages, such as single-stick, sword, and others,
truly national. Whilst in ancient times philosophers,
magistrates, princes, kings, appeared on the arena or
in the lists to engage in competition or combat, now-a-
days the public participation in such sports is shown in
a very different mode and measure. Many games
which in the Middle Ages were practised by the
middle classes, are now left to the lower orders, or
limited to the rural districts. Most of our modern
popular games take place during popular festivals.
These festivals have everywhere a character belonging
to their own locality, and are in no two places exactly
alike. Usually, too, one kiud of sport alone is per-
formed at any one festival; it is but rare to find a
variety of exercises practised at one time in any parti-
cular district. In some parts of England we find
wrestling, as in Cumberland, Westmoreland, Cornwall ;
in others, foot-races, as the prevalent and favourite
exercise. The same thing is observable in Germany.
In some parts, climbing is the exercise preferred; in
others, the foot-race ; in others again, wrestling or
leaping; the use of the sling, lifting of weights, and
other exercises. The latter is a favourite game among
the Dithmarses, a North German tribe. In Switzer-

74 Historical Sketch of Gymnastics,

land, as in Germany, some special kinds of exercises
and games are found among the people, especially in
the mountainous countries. The principal are — the
throwing of blocks of stone, wrestling, and lifting, in
which the whole youth of the rural districts participate
at popular festivals. But as a proof that in former
ages these rustic games were more national, and
embraced by a great part of the community in
Germany and Switzerland, I quote here the words of
the celebrated Swiss historian, Johannes von Miiller,
who says, referring to the fifteenth century, that the
cultivation of bodily aptitude, without which the wisest
and boldest man is awkward, was carried to a great
extent. The most distinguished cross-bowmen, and
those who excelled in running, leaping, and throwing
large stones, were often invited by towns and country
districts to general contests. The prizes were horses,
oxen, silver cups, gold rings, clothing, and money.
There were judges and umpires, and regulations for the
contests ; and, though different as to their evolutions,
these contests took place in ancient Greek fashion,
with almost ancient emulation. Yet more imposing
were the spectacles of those splendid games which
knights and lords celebrated in honour of their friends.
Such exercises, says J. v. Miiller, by which courage
and brotherly feeling were strengthened, and which
promoted manliness, upheld the Fatherland and human
dignity better than the sleepy, machine-like handling of
arms, by means of which a class of second-rate com-
manders can carry on the art of war.

Through preceding centuries down to the present

Modern Popular Athletic Exercises, 75

day, the above-named exercises have been kept up in
several parts of Germany and Switzerland, but with
the difference, for some time past, that they have ceased
to be national and general.

Besides the games and sports of ancient origin, most
of which are now confined to the lower orders, there
are others which exclusively belong to the higher
orders, such as steeple-chasing and archery. There
are, moreover, many popular games which are favourite
amusements in all classes of English society, although
practised only at certain seasons of the year, such as
cricket and football, both of which are exercises most
valuable for strengthening the body and sharpening
the eye.

CONCLUSION.

Fkom the preceding historical sketch the following in-
ferences may be drawn : —

Aucient civilisation cultivated gymnastics with
enthusiasm, with religious zeal. The Greeks and
Romans thought that they were the only means of
creating and maintaining energetic races, capable of
preserving themselves, and of increasing and extending
their dominion. In the Middle Ages, the reign of
physical force was supreme ; and, therefore, contests for
superiority in physical force were important and were
general. But modern nations, having neglected gym-
nastics, return to them but with difficulty and by
degrees only, overlooking the reasons which still exist
in favour of their cultivation.

If asked how it comes to pass that physical strength,
so much esteemed by the ancients, is, in comparison,
so moderately estimated by the moderns, the author
would suggest, in explanation, the causes following : —

First, the spiritualising tendency, impressed gradually
and slowly upon Christianised nations by that religion
which had risen upon the ruins of Pagan materialism.
Luther, when he wishes to remind the nations of the
traditions of the primitive Church, exclaims with his
impetuous eloquence that with the Word we must fight,
and conquer and overthrow what has been erected by

Conclusion. 7 7

material force. And, indeed, the early Christians had
no other arms but words and examples.

Again, the great movement of the fifteenth century,
or of the Renaissance, was another cause of the decay
of physical education. Literature, arts, sciences, dis-
coveries, had rendered the field of intellectual endeavour
so extensive and so varied, that it was more than suffi-
cient to give a full latitude to human activity, and to
satisfy that imperious incessant craving after progress,
that love of enterprise which, in one form or another,
influences and disturbs the whole of human nature.

The invention of gunpowder in warfare had also
some influence on the disuse of gymnastics. Strength
is necessary to man against natural obstacles and against
his fellow-men; but if he has well- constructed engines
which centuple his individual power, he naturally lays
aside the use of this latter gift. In the battles of old time
it was the most vigorous men who decided the victory.
Fire-arms establish among all men a terrible equality.

It may also be suggested that the external circum-
stances of ancient nations tended to improve physical
training among them. Surrounded and shut in on all
sides by barbarians, whom the instincts of want and
the love of plunder led on to invade richer and more
fertile countries, they were obliged to vanquish or to
yield, to conquer or to be conquered, to master other
lands in order not to lose their own. The result was
that prodigious development, among the Greeks and
Romans, of the strength and physical capabilities whose
achievements are familiar to us all.

g2

PART II.

ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION:

ITS NEGLECT, ITS BENEFITS, AND THE MEANS
FAVOURABLE TO ITS PROMOTION.

PART II.

INTRODUCTION,

EXTRACTED FROM THE WORK

"ON PERSONAL CARE OF HEALTH,'

BY

Dr. E. A. PARKES, F.R.S.

Late Professor of Military Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, and

Emeritus Professor of Hygiene in University College, London ;

Member of the Senate of the University of London, &c.

" Parts, when used, grow ; when not used, waste and
become small. The conditions of growth are that a
part shall be exercised, and shall be supplied with food.
" This is true not only of every muscle and nerve in
our body, but of mental and moral qualities. The
proper regulation of exercise forms, then, one of the
most important rules of this period, and the object to
be aimed at is to exercise all parts of the body which
the will can influence. If we could place a young man
or woman in the most favourable conditions (and
among the richer classes in this country all could be thus
placed), the following distribution of time would be the
best : — At this period of life eight hours, at least, out
of the twenty-four are required for sleep, and I believe
nine would be often better. Of the remaining fifteen,
three to four hours might be occupied with meals and

82 Introduction.

rest during the day, and the remaining eleven or
twelve should be given to exercise. Of the eleven or
twelve hours, I believe that half the time might be
given to mental and moral, and half to bodily exercise ;
but I do not venture to state this as a rule for all
classes. The mental and the bodily exercises should
be alternated. I believe two hours at a time is quite
enough mental work, if the attention be fixed; and
the results of the short-time plan in the agricultural
schools show how much may be accomplished by fixing
the attention firmly for a moderate time, and not
overwearying it. The development of the mental and
moral faculties, by careful exercise during this period
of life, is a theme which I cannot pursue. I would
merely say that the way in which memory — the power
of comparison, rapid apprehension of facts, regard to
truth, feelings of justice, benevolence, &c. — may be
cultivated by exercise, is quite as extraordinary as the
way in which particular sets of muscles may be deve-
loped at will. It would seem almost to support the
view that different parts of the brain are connected
with these faculties, for how else can we account for
their growth so readily as by supposing that exercise
produces a more perfect nutritive condition of their
material substratum. Bodily exercise is, however, the
point I have to discuss. This is necessary in all periods
of life, for without it the circulation of blood in the
interior of the body, and especially through the liver,
becomes feeble ; the heart grows weak, and the lungs
expand and work less perfectly. Diseases of the liver,
lungs, and heart may be produced or favoured by too

Introduction. 83

sedentary habits. But in this period of life exercise is
all -important, for without it the muscles and the nerves,
and even the bones, remain comparatively weak and
small.

" In the richer class, young men are at schools or
colleges during most of this period, and happily, owing
to the general liking for bodily exercises and field
sports, a good deal of muscular exercise is taken, though
not always perhaps in the best way. But among the
young women of the same class this is certainly not
the case as a rule. Physical education is very much
neglected, and any one who looks at the young ladies
of our time cannot avoid noticing that large numbers
of them are growing up tall, narrow both in chest and
hips, and with every sign of rather feeble health. A
race depends largely for its stamina on the mothers,
and must degenerate if these are feeble and want bone
and muscle. It cannot be sufficiently known that
young women ought to be physically trained as care-
fully as men ; they will never have the same strength,
nor is it meant that it should be so, but they ought to
have strong, firm muscles and well-developed chests and
haunches. These things can never come without
bodily labour, and I do not think that five or six hours
daily real exercise is one minute too much even for
them.

" In the poorer classes, employed as they are during
this period in shops, factories, farms, and in a thousand
different ways, it is not easy to say what is the average
amount of muscular work each takes, or whether it is
in excess or the reverse. It seems clear that the indoor,

84 Introduction.

sedentary, and quiescent occupations have increased in
an extraordinary ratio during this century as compared
with the outdoor, active, and laborious trades. And
some writers believe they can even now trace in our
manufacturing towns a decided decline in the height
and power of both males and females. It must be
admitted that that is likely, for in many trades a boy
or girl begins to work at fourteen or fifteen, and
requires to use the muscles very little. They grow up
narrow-shouldered, and with soft, small muscles ; these
acquired conditions will be transmitted to a certain
extent, and the next generation may perceptibly lessen
in size

' ( The richer classes could easily regulate the amount
and kind of bodily labour, but the poorer classes, who
are obliged to follow their occupations many hours
daily, cannot do so.

" Happily many trades demand bodily labour. . . .
But other trades are sedentary, and both boys and girls
may be in one position, or at any rate will have very
little bodily movement for nearly the whole day. . . .
How is this to be met ?"

After having described the effects of various exercises,
such as walking, rowing, running, games, &c, Dr.
Parkes says : —

"For exercising all the muscles of the body there is
nothing, however, like good systematic work in a gymnasium.
. ... It is most earnestly to be hoped that cheap gym-
nasia in our large manufacturing towns may soon be
common, and afford this exercise to the artisans engaged in
sedentary trades."

ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION :

ITS NEGLECT, ITS BENEFITS, AND THE MEANS
FAVOURABLE TO ITS PROMOTION.

NEGLECT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

The destiny of man is not only to exercise his intel-
lectual and moral faculties ; he must also act, resist,
struggle, through the medium of his body. Our modern
civilisation, with all its contrivances and instruments,
that work and act for us, seems to have caused a great
disregard and neglect of the powers of our own limbs.
But, if some unforeseen event throws us out of reach
of our appliances ; if we have to struggle with physical
agencies, as cold and heat, with fatigue, with the ele-
ments, with animals, or with our fellow-men ; then we
lack that courage and confidence which, as Montesquieu
says, is but man's consciousness of his strength, and we
succumb powerless.

The ancients understood far better than we do the
harmonious development of body and mind. The
maxim, mens sana in corpore sano, was among them
strictly heeded. Bodily exercises were celebrated in
song, and glorified in the annals of history. They
were, as we have already seen, constantly practised in
the gymnasia ; and the heroes of the public games en-

86 On Physical Education.

joyed an almost idolising adoration. Both in Greece
and Rome physical education was regarded as the
foundation of physical and intellectual, public and pri-
vate welfare ; and the soundness of this view has been
proved by brilliant results.

The student of history must observe, that whilst
mankind has made enormous advances in civilisation
in general, it has, in some respects, gone backwards.
This is especially the case with regard to physical
education. The educational principles of the ancients,
so entirely in harmony with the constitution of man,
have been gradually abandoned. It is true that much
has been done, especially in our own time, for some
branches of education. But, with all the endeavours
made to advance intellectual education, one thing seems
to have been overlooked — that man has a body, which
stands as much in need of development as his mind.
While attention has been bestowed almost exclusively
on the latter, the former has been left to natural in-
stincts, and dependent upon the accidental course of
bodily occupations. Thus, a kind of estrangement
has sprung up between mind and body; the mind,
regardless of its partner, has soared aloft into regions
of ideal life, while " the temple of the spirit" has been,
like a neglected dwelling, allowed to fall into premature
decay.

This neglect of the body begins often in the nursery.
The tender heart of the mother rarely regards the
future physical development of the infant. She cares
more for its present wants and wishes, and but too
readily assists and encourages sensual desires, through

Neglect of Physical Education. Sy

which the child is spoiled, often for life. Fashion, food,
and clothing, all tend to promote enervation among
the young of the well-to-do classes. All sorts of articles
of clothing, gloves, furs, &c, are provided to envelop the
little body during inclement weather. Thus the child
is brought up, incapable of bearing heat or cold, wind
and rain. Instead of accustoming it, at an early age, to
endurance in walking, it must be wheeled about in a
perambulator.

This pernicious system is frequently continued in
schools for children.* At school every possible exer-
tion is expected of the mind, but the body is left to
itself. Insufficient time is left for exercise or play.
Even in infant schools we see education pursue this
unnatural course. For unnatural indeed it is to drag
the infant creatures from their cheerful and free life
of youth, from the fresh and invigorating air, to crowd
them together in the close atmosphere of a room,
there to be trained to sit still, and to be crammed with
indigestible intellectual food. Parents and teachers
take all possible pains to produce, as early as possible,
a dangerous polymathy in their children, forgetting
that too often the consequence is the early fading of
the young plant. In infant schools, or any schools for
children, the development of the tender body of the
child should be the first care, and suitable games
should furnish the first occupation of the mind. Special

* The following remarks do not apply so much to the chil-
dren of the well-to-do classes, but to those of other classes, by
far the greater majority, and particularly to little girls.

88 On Physical Education.

bodily exercises, adapted to their age, should accustom
them to attention and order. The younger the chil-
dren, the more unnatural is it to compel them to sit
still, keeping the body long in one attitude. The
fashion at present is to commence the mental training
of children as early as possible. Experience shows,
however, that physically healthy and vigorous children
soon overtake, in mental work, the physically weak
ones. It is an acknowledged fact, that to pass long
hours on school forms, without change, is the source,
especially in the case of lively children, of manifold
evils.

In higher educational institutions, where the demands
on intellectual activity are far higher than in elemen-
tary schools, the mind is still more burdened ; and,
after the hours devoted to instruction, little time re-
mains for systematic and regular exercises for all,
during all seasons and weathers.

What are the consequences of such an unnatural
and defective education ? A premature and excessive
straining of the mind engenders precocity, and thereby
moral and physical development is arrested. The
entire vital activity is directed to the brain, which
thus receives premature and one-sided development.
The excessive amount of vital force absorbed by
the brain is taken away from the other parts of the
body, and an early cessation of growth is the conse-
quence. This produces men unfitted for exertion
and the battle of life, who too often, after a sickly
life, fall into an untimely grave. Depression of the

Neglect of Physical Education, 89

heart, irritability of the nervous system, weak diges-
tion, rheumatism, consumption, vertigo, curvature of
the spine, and a host of other diseases, are increasing
among our present generation, in consequence of seden-
tary habits of life, insufficient exercise, and muscular
weakness. Especially do the evil consequences of neg-
lected physical development show themselves in the
female sex, among whom bodily exercises are entirely
neglected, except in the richer classes. The changes
introduced by modern life have a deteriorating in-
fluence on the race. Men have left, and are leav-
ing, the fields, and the cultivation of the soil, and
congregate more and more in towns. In these,
hundreds of thousands are chained to the desk,
millions to the workshop. It has been proved, it is
true, that the average duration of life is now higher
than in former times. But this is owing, not to the
habits of life, but to the progress of the science of
health and of comfort, which now preserves the lives
of many who in former times would have succumbed.
If we would establish a correct comparison between
now and formerly, we must not consider mere longevity,
but the proportion of prevalent diseases, the general
sanitary state of the community. Many a life is now
preserved, in its feebleness, from year to year, to
transmit, in many cases, the questionable boon of
ailing life to a feebler progeny.

The consequences of a too early development of the
intellect only, to the neglect of the body, are deplorably
manifest also in a moral point of view. There is no

90 On Physical Education.

doubt that a premature and too rapid intellectual deve-
lopment, taxing especially the memory and imagination,
often leads to a life of sensuality, and results in the fading
away of many in the prime of life. Weakness of body
induces feebleness of will, despondency, irresolution, a
tendency to abandon work which does not succeed at
the outset ; and where there is thus a lack of the con-
scious independence of freedom, a man is like the reed,
bending with the wind ; tossed on the waves of fate,
without will and energy, he has no heart to confront
danger alone, trusting in his own strength. A too early
sedentary existence, a one-sided intellectual education,
want of vigorous open-air exercise, arrest the de-
velopment of the senses, and with it also the cultivation
of the understanding and the heart. What has been
obtained in a short time by superexcitation to mental
effort, is soon lost again.

The injurious consequences of such a mode of edu-
cation are felt in the State and in the family; in
a political, social, and military respect. Many more
evil consequences of exclusive mental training might
be mentioned. It must not be imagined, however, that
I speak of our present intellectual education as exces-
sive. Let us develop the mind in a natural and com-
prehensive manner, at the right time ; but let us aim,
at the same time, to establish harmony between mind
and body. The power of intellect alone will not suffice
us in time of need ; intellectual attainments alone will
not secure our happiness ; we must also have health,
strength, bodily skill, and firmness of will.

We need a change in our system of domestic and

Neglect of Physical Education . 9 1

school education. Out of school-hours our youth
should be led to the gymnasium, there to develop their
physical powers, to renew their spirits, and arouse
their youthful ardour in methodical exercises and
games.

Every philanthropist, and in particular every teacher
of youth, should therefore lend his helping hand to
bring about the revival of the Gymnastic Art, the in-
vigorator of youth, the dispenser of health. Gymnastics
reinstate the human body in its rights ; they strengthen
the chest, harden the muscles, give wings to the feet,
cause the blood to course in livelier flow through the
veins, and maintain and diffuse a youthful vigour over
all the ages of man's life.

Many persons are, at present, prejudiced against
gymnastics; they entertain a low notion of them,
seeing in them but useless, if not dangerous, feats of
strength. Others think that they may be useful in
towns, but there only. Few appreciate gymnastics as
a part of general education, as a means of training not
only the physical, but also the intellectual and moral
faculties. But the true happiness and perfection of
man can exist only when he is in full possession of all
his faculties; and the great educational object of gym-
nastics is to promote that beautiful harmony between
mind and body, which is presented to us in the life of the
ancient Greeks. This can only be done by a thoroughly
scientific system of gymnastics, as a part of the regular
school- curriculum, and conducted by thoroughly trained
teachers. At present, gymnastics have attained a high
degree of perfection. But they have until now been

H

92 On Physical Education.

practised by comparatively few, being banished from
most schools, and frequently taught only by incompetent
teachers. To show that they are of greater educa-
tional importance for all classes than is generally be-
lieved by educators, is the object of this lecture. I
purpose to consider the subject from a physiological,
psychological, and practical point of view.

II.

CO-OPERATION OF BODY AND MIND.

I propose now to prove the necessity of physical train-
ing, by considering the relation between body and
mind. In attempting to do this we must meet the
question as to what part the physical faculties perform
in the perfection of man. Is there an antagonism
between physical development on the one side, and in-
tellectual and moral development on the other, as has
sometimes been asserted ? It has been, and is still,
the habit of opponents of physical education to asso-
ciate physical force with stupidity and brutality. This
sophism is based upon examples of athleticism in its
most exaggerated and degenerate form ; upon the fact
that many intellectually great men have had weak
bodies ; upon the supposed similarity of systematic
physical training with the profession of mountebanks ;
upon the injury that unsystematic, one-sided, and ex-
cessive muscular training causes to the mind; and
from such instances as these it is inferred that the body
cannot be trained but at the expense of the mind;
that a certain quantity of common aliment has been
fixed by Nature for both, so that in case of the one
requiring a larger share, the other must necessarily
suffer loss.

The Greek and Roman professional athletes were
certainly heavy and stupid, as Galen says. But the

H2

94 On Physical Education.

cause of their brutality is not to be ascribed to gym-
nastics, but to their abuse of them, and to their irre-
gular personal habits. These athletes offer, by contrast,
the very best proof in support of a system of equi-
librium in the faculties. By the side of such im-
moderate and disproportionate use of bodily exercises,
we may place excesses in the opposite direction;
there, also, we see exclusive and excessive labours
of the mind, leading men astray, and launching them
into a world of unreal, unsound, and extravagant
ideas. Similarly, the moral faculty also may degene-
rate into excess, in consequence of having been exclu-
sively cultivated, detached from the other faculties, and
left without counterpoise and corrective. History
affords numerous instances of aberrations of the moral
sense, whether of a sacred, profane, or mystical cha-
racter.

But is it true that men intellectually great have been
remarkable for the feebleness of their constitution, as
has been said ? They were feeble in feeble nations, but
strong among strong nations; according to the habits
and manners of their age or country. If Pascal and
Voltaire had feeble constitutions, yet Themistocles,
Alcibiades, Socrates, and Plato excelled in the exer-
cises of the gymnasium; on the broad shoulders of
Plato rested the most intelligent head of all Greece.
Witness, too, nearly all the great men of Rome ;
Sertorius swimming, in full armour, across the Rhone ;
Csesar in Gaul ; Pompey, of whom Sallust says : —
" Cum alacribus saltu, cum velocibus cursu, cum
validi s vecte, certabat."

Co-opei'ation of Body and Mind. 95

It has been maintained that, in consequence of an
antagonism between the muscles and the brain, the
state most favourable to intellectual work is that of
languor of the body, in which activity of the senses or
muscular excitation will not disturb profound medi-
tation. There is no doubt that such a state favours
intellectual dreaming. But for keeping the head
clear and within the sphere of reality, and for re-
invigorating the mind, there is nothing like hold-
ing the springs of the machine at a due degree
of tension. J. J. Rousseau found that walking revived
his ideas, and gave freshness to his feelings and
sensations. In his brilliant improvisations the orator
tunes his body to the diapason of his mind, accompany-
ing his words by energetic movements and gestures.

He who, devoted to intellectual work, has learnt to
temper the labour of the mind by the salutary diver-
sion of muscular activity, knows well the fatal in-
fluence that torpor of the body exercises over the repose
of the mind. The head has become heavy and em-
barrassed, the confused ideas throng in upon a
mind incapable of separating and classifying them ;
words pale and colourless present themselves to express
only hazy and imperfect thoughts ; the reasoning process
proceeds painfully ; but an hour of walking, riding, or
lively play dissipates the clouds ; and, as Boileau says,
"the words, which had fled, meet us at the other end
of a wood."

Again, is it the fact that physical development
impairs that of the feelings and moral qualities?
Certainly not. It may be that now and then a strong

96 On Physical Education.

and energetic man does not feel with that delicacy
which is peculiar to woman, and to some exceptional
constitutions. But the feelings of honour, loyalty,
fidelity, and respect for the institutions of Nature, of
the family, of society, are found equally in both
natures. How many men are there, who, having
spent a life of labour, hardship, and continual struggle,
have nevertheless feelings as fresh as their coun-
tenance, and hide, under an iron body, a heart of
gold !

However different mind and body are respectively in
their nature and functions, they form together an inse-
parable whole. True education therefore ignores a
separation of mind and body; it demands the culti-
vation of the whole man — not only that of the under-
standing, the heart, and the will, but also that of the
senses and muscles. It knows that if one part of the sys-
tem suffers, the whole man suffers. What is beneficial
to the body, is so to the mind. Sickness and weakness
of body cause symptoms of suffering in the mind.
Only in a healthy, sound body can the mind be perfectly
healthy. Education must therefore aim at giving to
the mind a sound and strong foundation ; it must
consequently follow and obey the rules of hygiene, by
striving to bring into harmony intellectual and physical
activity, exertion, and refreshment.

The body is the instrument of the mind. It is the
executive of its thoughts. As such it has various
functions to perform by different organs. For my
present purpose, the organs of sensation and motion
require special attention. The perfection of man re-

Co-operation of Body and Mind. 97

quires that the former be sound, keen, and quick, and
that the latter be healthy, supple, strong, prepared for
instant use. A well-developed organism will exercise
a great and salutary influence on the mind, and elevate
the intellectual and moral life. The true perfection of
man is attained when the intellectual and physical are
closely allied, when nothing contrary to Nature disturbs
the inter- action of body and mind, when all the faculties
work together, when will and deed act in unison, when
the body duly executes what the mind directs. A man
thus developed possesses moral courage ; he delights in
mental and physical work, has strength to suppress
sensual predisposition, enjoys independence with regard
to social and natural influences. The life of youth
passes for him in purity, full of noble, generous im-
pulses, and a vigorous manhood and hale old age are
his portion.

While thus every production of human power is a
work of common activity of mind and body, nevertheless
the one activity may predominate over the other. The
mutual co-operation is checked and impeded only when
the body, having been imperfectly educated, refuses
from incapacity to perform its office of servant to the
mind.

The inner man is manifest in the outer man. Purity,
truth, frankness, unaffected ness have their expression
in external features; as also have falseness, cunning,
impurity, hypocrisy. Grace, a noble carriage and gait,
are outward signs of a noble inner man; just as a
swaggering air betokens conceit. The countenance of
the free man is noble ; that of the slave is ugly and

98 On Physical Education.

repulsive. The body, then, is the expression, the
image or mirror of the mind ; and dignity and beauty
are, therefore, among the fruits of physical training.
KaXoc Kal ayaOog, said the Greeks. Though here it
must be observed that real beauty does not consist in a
mere form of feature and figure, but in the external
expression of inward nobility of soul.

III.

EFFECTS OF BODILY TRAINING ON PHYSICAL,
INTELLECTUAL, AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT.

I purpose now to examine more in detail the effects of
systematic training on physical, and thus on intellectual
and moral development.

(I.) Influence of Gymnastics on Physical Development.

" A perfect state of health," says Dr. Parkes, in his
Manual of Hygiene, " implies that every organ has its
due share of exercise. If this is deficient, nutrition
suffers, the organ lessens in size, and more and more
degenerates. If it he excessive, nutrition, at first appa-
rently vigorous, becomes at last abnormal, and also
causes degeneration. Every organ has its special sti-
mulus, which excites its action ; and if this stimulus is
perfectly normal as to quantity and quality, perfect

health is necessarily the result The action of

the voluntary muscles is necessary for the perfect exer-
cise of all organs. For the circulation of the blood, its
formation and destruction, are profoundly influenced by
the movement of the voluntary muscles. Without this
muscular movement, health must inevitably be lost."

The effects of muscular exercises are local and
general.

The Voluntary Muscles. — The local effect is the growth

ioo On Physical Education.

of the muscles ; they become firmer, and respond more
readily to volition. When we exercise the arm — e.g.,
by handling a club, or by striking with a hammer, or
rapidly turning a wheel — the limb becomes the seat of
a considerable fluxion : its bulk increases ; heat is
developed in it ; and, if the skin be fine, and the capil-
lary system rich, a ruddy glow is diffused over it,
and a more or less abundant perspiration succeeds. If
the limb is not accustomed to muscular exertion, lassi-
tude presently sets in. An effort of the will may over-
come this first feeling of fatigue, until one more
imperious claims rest. Then, at a longer or shorter
interval, everything returns to its normal state.
Fatigue or stiffness disappears last. By the habitual
practice of the same movements, the limb becomes the
seat of a continued affluxion, of a more active circula-
tion and nutrition ; in a word, it becomes larger. The
growth of the muscles, however, has a limit. If the
limb is gradually accustomed to the exercise, it becomes
able to resist, to a considerable extent, the feeling of
fatigue. But the too frequent repetition of one parti-
cular exercise, or the excessive exercise of a single
muscle or group of muscles, results in a wasting dimi-
nution. It appears that this is less the case when all
the muscles of the body are equally exercised. But in
any case, prolonged or too great exertion, without due
intervals of rest, injures the nutrition of the muscles,
and they become soft.

Thus moderate and gradual exercise leads to the
progressive development of the muscular system, while
abuse of it induces atrophy. Look at the thin legs of

Effects of Bodily Training. 101

a man who walks to excess — the lean arms of certain
workmen or labourers, exhausted by fatigue. But
exercise must not only be moderate and gradual, it
ought also to be general — i.e., all muscles, and not
single groups, should be brought into play. One-sided
exercise of certain muscles causes atrophy of the others.
Smiths, fencing- masters, and others, often have right
arms of extraordinary bulk, the legs of dancers are
extravagantly developed, the shoulders of porters are
like those of Atlas, while the muscles of the other parts
of the body are shrunken.

The general effects of exercise are analogous to the
local effects — viz., fluxionary movement towards the
outer skin, acceleration of the pulse and respiratory
movements, perspiration, &c.

In passing on to describe the effects of exercise on
certain organs of the body, I again avail myself, in a
condensed form, of Dr. Parkes* excellent Manual of
Hygiene.

The Lungs. — The most important effect of muscular
exercise is produced on the lungs. The pulmonary
circulation, the quantity of air inhaled and of carbonic acid
exhaled, is greatly increased. Thus — e.g., a man inhales,
under ordinary circumstances, 480 cubic inches of air
per minute; if he walks four miles an hour, he inhales
2400 cubic inches; at six miles an hour, 3360 cubic
inches ; the amount of carbonic acid in the exhaled air
increases in proportion. With fair exertion for ten
hours a day the amount of carbon given off in twenty-
four hours would be increased about one-third over
the excretion in the same time during rest.

102 On Physical Education.

Thus muscular exercise is necessary for a due elimi-
nation of carbon from the body ; and it is plain that,
in a state of prolonged rest, either the quantity of
carboniferous food must be reduced, or carbon will
accumulate in the system.

Excessive and ill- arranged exertion may lead to con-
gestion of the lungs, and even hemoptysis. Deficient
exercise, on the other hand, is one of the causes which
produce those nutritional alterations in the lungs that
are classed as tuberculous.

The Heart and Blood-vessels. — The action of the
heart increases rapidly in force and frequency, and the
flow of blood through all parts of the body, including
the heart itself, is augmented. The amount of increase
is usually from ten to thirty beats, but occasionally
much more. After the exercise the heart's action
must be carefully watched, and exercise should be
discontinued if the beats become extremely quick
(from 120 to 140 per minute) and irregular. Excessive
exercise leads to affection of the heart, rupture, palpita-
tion, hypertrophy in many cases, and more rarely val-
vular disease. Injuries to vessels may also result from
sudden or prolonged exercise. Deficient exercise leads
to weakening of the heart's action and to fatty degene-
ration.

The Skin. — The skin becomes red from turgescence
of the vessels ; perspiration is increased ; water, chloride
of sodium, and acids being given off abundantly. Eva-
poration reduces and regulates the heat of the body,
which would otherwise soon become excessive; so that
the animal temperature rises little above the average.

Effects of Bodily Training. 103

If anything check the evaporation, the heat increases,
and soon languor comes on, and exertion becomes
irksome.

During exertion there is little danger of chill under
almost any circumstances ; but when the exertion is
over, the reverse is the case, because the heat of the
body rapidly declines, and falls below the natural
amount, while the evaporation from the skin, still
further abstracting the heat, continues.

The Nervous System. — There is no doubt that great
bodily vigour is quite consistent with extreme mental
activity. Considering that perfect nutrition is not
possible without bodily activity, it may be inferred
that a fair amount of exercise is necessary for the
perfect performance of mental work.

The Digestive System. — The appetite largely increases
with exercise, especially for meat and fat. Digestion
is more perfect, and probably a larger development of
force is obtained from an equal quantity of food, than
in a state of rest. The circulation through the liver
increases, and the abdominal circulation is carried on
with more vigour.

The Metamorphosis of Tissue. — The weight of the
body is lessened by exertion, owing to the increased
excretion of carbon, nitrogen, water and salts. The
renewal of the muscles appears to take place only
during rest; and they require apparently much rest,
especially weak muscles.

The muscles, after exercise, easily absorb and retain
water. Water taken after exertion does not pass off as
usual by the kidneys or the skin; and instead of

104 On Physical Education.

causing an augmented metamorphosis, as it does in a
state of rest, it produces no effect whatever. It is
probable that it enters into the composition of the
muscles, from which water has been passing so rapidly
during their exercise.

Thus, as has been seen from the above quotations
from Dr. Parkes, exercise stimulates the nutritive
functions, accelerates secretion, increases animal heat,
and is an efficacious means to counteract extremes
of temperature. At the same time it sharpens the
external senses, promotes cheerfulness and vivacity,
and induces refreshing sleep.

Now, is the strengthening of the constitution the di-
rect result of gymnastic exercise ? It is true the athletes
were frequently subject to maladies, and were only mode-
rately efficient soldiers. They had, as a rule, indifferent
constitutions. But this was rather due to exaggerated
and one-sided exercise, to the violation of all hygienic
rules, as well as to a life of idleness and excess. The
Greek Agesilaus, feeble and sickly at his birth, was
on the point of being exposed in infancy, and owed
his life only to a movement of maternal pity. By
means of the practice of gymnastics, he became capable
of resisting the greatest fatigues of war. But we must
distinguish between force proper and mere force of
resistance. There is a difference between being strong
and being robust. Gymnastics bestow the second
quality less easily than the first. The robust man owes
his vigour in some degree to the good harmony of his
native constitution ; special aptitude to meet the rigour
of the elements, and to confront fatigues and priva-

Effects of Bodily Training. 105

tions, is not imparted by gymnastics, but only facili-
tated by them. But to restrict tbe effects of gym-
nastics within exact limits is not the same thing as to
deny their importance and usefulness.

In fortifying the constitution, gymnastics exercise a
very beneficial influence, as preventive of many diseases,
upon their cure, and on convalescence. They are
salutary in epidemics, when corporeal activity is often
the most efficacious means to stir up moral energy.
They are powerful against scrofula, rachitis, against
arthritic affections followed by ankylosis, against
chlorosis, chorea, and most nervous affections. On
delicate chests, gymnastics have a very beneficial effect.
In fact, a well-regulated course of exercises is acknow-
ledged to be an important remedial measure in threatened
phthisis.

There are, however, several maladies which preclude
the use of gymnastics, such as the class of inflammations,
where rest is the first condition of treatment, organic
affections of the heart and of the large vessels, advanced
phthisis, &c. But in the first stages of the latter
disease gentle and cautious exercise has been prescribed
with success.

It may be imagined that gymnastics, which render
all the functions of the body more energetic, might
themselves become a source of disease, unless carried
out with certain precautions and according to hygienic
rules. I will point out certain rules, the observance of
which I consider highly necessary.

During exercise the action of the lungs should be
perfectly free; not the least impediment should be

106 On Physical Education.

offered to the free play of the chest and the action of
the respiratory muscles. The action of the lungs should
be watched when men are being trained for exertion ;
as soon as the respiration becomes laborious, and espe-
cially if there be sighing, the lungs are becoming con-
gested, and rest is necessary. The great increase in
the excretion of carbonic acid renders a much larger
amount of pure air necessary. In every covered build-
ing where exercise is taken, the ventilation must there-
fore be carried to the greatest possible extent, so soon
does the air become vitiated.

In commencing an unaccustomed exercise, the heart
must be closely watched; excessive rapidity (120 to
140 beats per minute), inequality, and irregularity will
indicate that rest, and then more gradual exercise, is
necessary, in order that the heart may become by de-
grees equal to the work.

The skin should be kept extremely clean. During the
exercise it may be exposed, but immediately afterwards,
or in the intervals of exertion, it should be covered
sufficiently well to prevent the least feeling of chill on
the surface. Also during cold and rainy weather the
body ought to be well protected, and damp places
should be avoided. The clothes should be of light
woollen material, and made loose-fitting, so as not to
impede the circulation at any point. No braces or
neckties should be worn, and the shoes should be supple
and without nails.

Exercise should never be taken upon a full stomach,
nor immediately after eating ; for not only may serious
accidents thus ensue, but at such times the activity of

Effects of Bodily Training. 107

the circulation ought to be concentrated on the stomach
for the work of digestion. During exercise water is
the only liquid to be taken. Spirits lessen the excretion
of the pulmonary carbonic acid, and are therefore hurt-
ful during exercise. The great increase of carbon ex-
creted demands an increase of carbon to be supplied in
the food. This is best given in the form of fat, a sub-
stance absolutely essential for the nutrition of muscular
fibre. The quantity of nutriment must therefore be in-
creased, especially of nitrogenous substances, fats and
salts. The effects of exercise on digestion are greatly
promoted, if it be taken in the open air, and it is then a
most valuable remedy for certain forms of dyspepsia.
Contrary to old prejudice, water is absolutely necessary
for the working muscles. The proper way is to let
them have it in small quantities frequently. Thus two
dangers are avoided — viz., the too rapid passage of a
large quantity of cold water into the stomach and blood,
and the taking more than is necessary, because less is
really taken in this way than if the thirst be restrained.
If the water is very cold, it may be held in the mouth
a minute or more before swallowing it.

As I have already said, all muscles, and not a single
group or groups, should be brought into play; and
periods of exercise must be alternated, especially in
early training, with long intervals of rest. Before
taking violent exercise, some gentler preparatory exer-
cises should always precede, the object of which is to
loosen, as it were, the limbs. A short foot-race is
also a good introduction. The muscles, thereby warmed
and relaxed, contract more readily. The duration,

I

108 On Physical Education.

alternation, and extent of the exercises ought always
to be regulated by a well-trained instructor. A good
instructor ought to know how to diversify the move-
ments, to give rest to the extensor muscles, by the
action of the flexors ; to those of the upper parts by
the exercise of the lower ; in short, to know thoroughly
the different capacities of the different sets of muscles.
In this way he can make his pupils perform continued
and severe exercises during an hour or more. He must
further know how to lead on gradually the beginners
and the weak from the easier to the most severe
exercises.

After exercise, care should be taken not to rest in
places where the temperature is too high or too low,
and particularly to avoid damps and draughts. Bathing
of the body with lukewarm or cold water is very bene-
ficial. Nothing is more suitable to revive exhausted
strength than cold ablution, provided that the skin
be properly wiped ; or, better still, rubbed with a piece
of flannel in order to keep up in it a certain fluxionary
state, and prevent injurious reaction. The ancients
made great use of unguents and friction, which had the
effect of rendering the skin supple, and promoting cir-
culation; while the oil and dust, with which the
athletes covered themselves, formed for them some kind
of protective envelope against chill.

A system and period of preparation, usually termed
training, and by many considered a most necessary
preparation for athletic sports, is quite useless, and
often injurious. Among the ancients — with the excep-
tion of the professional athletes — there was no training.

Effects of Bodily Training, 109

With them exercises were continuous, and were not
alternated with periods of complete idleness. The best
training is to lead a life which keeps a man ready for
action at any time. Plain and regular food, without
restriction to one fixed diet ; temperance ; systematic,
continuous exercise, not pushed to excess ; avoidance
of tobacco, or its use in great moderation ; great clean-
liness, are all that is required for training.

The rules of gymnastics ought to be adapted to
individual differences and to the varying conditions of
life, viz.: —

(1) To Temperament. — The sanguine temperament
requires moderate exercise, in order to avoid active
congestion ; the nervous temperament should be sub-
dued and regulated in its actions by its sense of fatigue ;
the lymphatic temperament needs active movement at
all seasons.

(2) To Age. — Natural gymnastics suffice for the
child. Regular instruction should only begin at the
age of ten or twelve. During adolescence, exercises
temper precocity and regulate the respiratory func-
tions. By means of them the man of mature age avoids
obesity and undue development of the abdominal
organs. They impart a new elasticity to the languishing
functions of old age (though in the case of old men
the condition of the heart and vessels, as to rigidity,
should be regarded). Thus all ages are benefited by
gymnastics.

(3) To Sex. — Gymnastics develop strength and grace
in both sexes ; but they must, of course, be less severe
for the female. To young girls especially they offer

1%

no On Physical Education.

decided advantages. But girls and women should
avoid violent shocks or concussions, especially those
produced by leaping, which might even produce
fatal consequences. To women especially Goethe's
words may be applied : " Nur aus vollendeter Kraft
spricht Anmuth hervor."

(4) To Habit and Professio?i. — With regard to the
intensity and duration of exercises, gradual increase is
to be observed, having regard particularly to the calling
of each individual. A youth or a man with sedentary
habits must proceed in a way different from that fol-
lowed by the man who leads an active life. But with
all, gradual and systematic increase is necessary.

There are some professions which secure more or
less exercise for the body; but the daily work bears
upon certain muscles only. There is neither pondera-
tion nor equilibrium in the system of their muscular
action. Many workmen exercise their muscles indeed,
but in workshops and factories filled with a deleterious
atmosphere. With them exercise in the open air would
not only not be useless, but actually beneficial. In
certain trades, the smith's for example, an extraordi-
nary development of certain muscles is produced by
the nature of his work. While his right arm is im-
mensely increased in size, the muscles of the trunk
and legs are often emaciated; and in consequence of
the repetition of the same movement, and neglect of
other exercises, these men are not strong in a general
sense, nor healthy, and not unfrequently they become
hump-backed. In callings of a higher order, among
clerks and literary men, when sedentary life is not

Effects of Bodily Training. in

counterbalanced by bodily exercise, a host of maladies
are developed, such as apoplexies, gastralgies, visceral
affections, gravel, gout, haemorrhoids, &c. Tissot, in
his work, " Sur la sante' des gens de lettres," points to
the pernicious influence of the stooping position on the
organs of respiration, and on the circulation in the
abdominal viscera. " All literary men," he says, " ought
to impose upon themselves the duty of devoting every
day an hour or two to exercise/'

The beneficial effects of physical exercise may be
shortly summed up as follows : —

(i) Sound lasting health, resulting from the harmo-
nious co-operation and development of all the organs.

(2) Strength of all the muscles alike, not of a few, as
is the case with artisans and labourers.

(3) Dexterity, which consists in the great flexibility
and mobility of the body, ready to carry into instant
execution the mandate of the will. A point of great
importance in all professions, and particularly the
military.

(4) Endurance t a consequence of the above.

(II.) Influence of Gymnastics on the Moral and
Intellectual Development.

" If one wishes to work upon the understanding of a
pupil," says Rousseau, "one must first work upon
the forces which it is to rule. Exercise his body,
render it healthy and strong, in order to be able to
render it wise and reasonable; let him work, run,
shout, be in constant motion ; let him first be a man

ii2 On Physical Education.

in animal spirits, and he will soon be one also in his
reason/''

Cheerfulness and mirth are found only in a healthy-
body, and under their rule the intellectual faculties
attain a quicker and more vigorous growth. With a
cheerful spirit we think and judge more acutely and
correctly.

Children bring cheerfulness and mirth, as a na-
tural gift, into school, provided these have not already
been suppressed by an unnatural education. At school
such dispositions ought to be cultivated and encouraged
by games and exercises. Long hours of intense and
fatiguing study, without exercise intervening, suppress
cheerfulness, and with it all pleasure in study and all
disposition to apply. The school then becomes a prison;
learning becomes forced labour, leading either to tor-
pidity or to unnatural efforts. The development of the
body is arrested. There is no harmony in the progress
of the body and of the intellect. But add to instruction
exhilarating games and exercises, as a systematic recrea-
tion after intellectual work, and there will be a different
tale to tell.

From another point of view, also, instruction would
be far more successful, if gymnastics were a regular
branch of instruction. In gymnastics the teacher
would possess an excellent means of discipline. During
gymnastic exercises the attention of the pupils is kept
continually on the stretch ; eye and ear are intent upon
the master during the common drill. This atten-
tion is, as a rule, transferred from the gymnasium to
the school-room; the teacher commands tranquillity and

Effects of Bodily Training. 113

order, and is instantly obeyed. In such a school
disorder, inattention, disobedience, and rudeness hav
been found to be comparatively rare.

The object of school -life ought to be the training up
of the young to intellectual, moral, and physical maturity.
Our schools ought to counteract and extirpate one of
the greatest evils of our times — viz., enervation, with its
pernicious consequences. Enervation weakens will,
courage, self-confidence. Under its influence the mind
becomes the slave of the body. Strength and health,
produced by exercise, on the contrary produce
resolution, energy, courage, and firmness of cha-
racter.

We read with admiration of the character, courage,
and patriotism of the ancient Greeks; but we quite
forget what produced these qualities. It was, to a
great degree, gymnastics which nurtured among them
those beautiful traits of patriotism, of self-sacrifice and
devotion, which we admire. It was with confidence in
the well-trained citizens of his country that Lycurgus
answered the reproach of having left Sparta without
walls : " The citizens of Sparta must be her walls."
To recall only one modern example, — the first men
who took up arms at the rising of the German nation,
in 18 1 3, were the pupils of "Father Jahn/' the
founder of modern gymnastics in Germany.

Gymnastics awaken a sense for the beautiful and
graceful. Attitude and movement of the body during
exercises lead to this. In the gymnasium man strives
after the perfect and beautiful. Every aesthetic repre-
sentation acts both on body and mind. Among the

i T 4 On Physical Education.

Greeks the sense for the beautiful was chiefly aroused
by gymnastics.

Emulation is another fruit of gymnastics. Emulation,
in a good sense, is of no little importance for the training
of energetic youth. Lucian represents Solon saying to
Anacharsis : " If we were to banish from human life
this love of fame, what dost thou think that we should
gain thereby ? Who would then have any desire to
perform splendid deeds V

Through gymnastics, moreover, we improve our social
life, and widen the circle of worthy occupations. Popu-
lar festivals, of a character far different from horse-
races and the like, would soon follow the general intro-
duction of gymnastics into school and social life, and
would contribute no little to raise the tone and manners
of society.

Dr. Werner, a German author, illustrates the in-
fluence of gymnastics on the moral and intellectual
development in the following succession of causes and
effects : —

Health of the body . . Cheerfulness of mind.

Hardening of the body . Manliness of mind.

Strength and skill . . . Presence of mind, courage.

Activity of body . . . Activity of mind.

Fine development of body Beauty of soul.

Acuteness of the senses . Strength of the thinking

faculty.

(III.) Influence of Gymnastics on Professional Ability.

Love of work, and skill in work, are the fruits of a
good physical and intellectual education. Where there

Effects of Bodily Training. 115

are active and industrious citizens, prosperity exist?.
This love of work ought to be awakened early at school.
The youth of the lower classes, rendered active, indus-
trious, and skilful in the gymnasium connected with
the school, would be far different from what it is
now. There would be fewer idlers, fewer claiming the
support of their fellow-men.

With regard to health, I have said enough already.
We know not only that gymnastics are a preventive
against diseases, but that they are also effectual to cure
many of them. Why not devote at least the same
care and attention to the gymnasium, as to the hos-
pital ? Is it not better, and cheaper also, to fill the
former than the latter ?

Military preparatory exercises in the gymnasium,
under able direction, would be useful, not only from a
pedagogical, but also from a technical and economical
point of view. They would serve as an initiatory
military training, and would render the soldier and
volunteer more able and apt for his profession.

IV.

PROMOTION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

The greatest impediment in the way of a general
introduction of gymnastics is the assumption that they
are both useless and dangerous. Useless in schools
in which games, such as cricket, &c, are general;
dangerous on account of the accidents to which gym-
nasts are exposed.

I have described the effects of gymnastics. There is
scarcely a muscle in the body which cannot be exercised
and strengthened by means of them. Their effects on
the body are general and thorough. This is not the
case with games. Excellent as the latter are, they are
not sufficient to develop systematically the whole mus-
cular system. They are excellent as supplementing
gymnastics, but can never stand in their stead. They
could never be attached to the school as gymnastics
may be; for whilst it would be an easy thing to pro-
vide for even the lowest class of school a covered gym-
nasium in which hundreds of children might together
or in detachments go through their exercises, the esta-
blishment of a playground large enough in every school
in the country, and the daily practice all the year round
and in all weathers of games of all the children of each
school during a limited time, would be an utter impos-
sibility. Thus games are, and will always be, an ex-

Promotion of Physical Education. 1 1 7

cellent pastime for the well-to-do classes, practised, not
regularly and daily, but at intervals ; but they can never
be a substitute for gymnastics.

The domain of gymnastics is very wide. They are
not limited only, as is sometimes imagined, to such
instruments as the horizontal bar, parallel bars, &c.
They comprise marching, foot-races, or running in rank
and file, leaping, lifting and throwing of weights, drag-
ging and carrying of loads, throwing lances and jave-
lins, climbing poles, ladders, and ropes, horse exer-
cises, wrestling, and many other feats, all admirably
adapted to the physical development of every part of
the body.

These exercises are not practised at random. In a
well-conducted gymnasium they are systematically
selected, succeeding each other methodically, proceed-
ing gradually from the easy to the difficult, like any
form of mental training. Thus the danger of overtaxing
the strength of the individual is avoided. The gymnasts
are classified according to their physical strength and
ability. A pause follows each exercise ; while violent
exertions are not followed immediately by absolute
rest, but by gentler ones by way of transition. Fool-
hardy youths are restrained from dangerous efforts.
In a well-directed gymnasium every squad is under the
direction of a leader, who superintends all the exercises,
watches every individual, and, with the aid of an efficient
assistant, during his practice on any instrument, helps
and protects him. This assistance, and the proper
method of protecting the individual practising, is in
itself an important branch of gymnastic training. And

1 1 8 On Physical Education.

although I have in former years regularly attended
crowded gymnasia, I have in only one instance wit-
nessed any accident, and this was owing to the gym-
nast's breaking the rules of the gymnasium by practising
alone. I repeat, if there is a regular superintendence,
and the instruments are good and well looked after,
accidents are almost impossible, and certainly less fre-
quent than on the cricket and football field.

But I must strongly protest against the notion
that a master can be dispensed with in the practice
of gymnastics. It is carelessness in this particular
which is dangerous ; which, by allowing unsystematic
exercises, injures health, causes accidents, and raises
prejudice against all gymnastics. In my opinion,
every gymnasium ought to be closed in the absence
of the master. The gymnasium is, moreover, not to be
allowed to be a sporting place for the unrestrained gam-
bols of youth; it should, on the contrary, be a place
of the strictest discipline, where obedience, order, and
systematic work prevail. It is to be a place where
youth is not only physically trained, but also morally
and mentally. Many of the exercises require, indeed,
strict attention and quick decision. If a gymnasium
is managed in such a manner, all prejudices will soon
and entirely vanish. Each gymnasium ought, more-
over, if practicable, to be under the superintendence of
a medical man, who should examine everv individual
with special regard to his heart and general condition of
health. With proper care gymnastics, whilst beneficial
to all, will be injurious to none.

The men who can do most for the promotion of

Promotion of Physical Education. 1 19

physical education are the medical men and teachers. The
medical man knows the influence of exercise on the
human organism; his duty is not only to heal, but
to prevent illness. The teacher should know that a
sound physical education has the most beneficial effect
on intellectual and moral education. The teacher's
•duty is the training of youth, not only of his mind, but
also of his body. As a rule, this branch of education
has been greatly neglected. Many see its usefulness,
but are unable to avail themselves of it, while others
look upon it as a new burden to their already hard lot.
But these latter should know that gymnastics would
not be a new burden. On the contrary, they would act
as a relief to their exhausting duties, and, at the
same time, be an excellent means of promoting disci-
pline. But here I must add, that in primary, and even
in secondary schools, gymnastics should be taught also
by teachers of the regular staff, who have had a thorough
general education. In German schools many a teacher
superintends the classical studies, history, or any other
branch, and also gymnastics. This would raise in this
country the character of the teacher of gymnastics, and
through it the importance of this branch of education;
and would greatly facilitate the general introduction
of gymnastics into all schools.

A great means to popularise gymnastics are public
gymnastic festivals. These have done much to promote
gymnastics in Germany and Switzerland. Through
them the people see and judge them. These festivals
may be of two kinds. Local festivals of each society,
school, or club — all in public ; or festivals of associated

120 On Physical Education.

clubs or schools. In the case of the latter, the place
of meeting ought regularly to be changed, so as to
enable every part of the country to witness thera.

The establishment of a National Association would
unite individual efforts, and produce a common united
action. Such an association would admit as members
representatives of all classes and professions. It would
be directed by a managing board. This board, com-
posed of eminent men and women of various vocations,
especially teachers and medical men, would establish
local boards in various districts and towns, which would
act in harmony with it, and again constitute provincial
sections. It would, further, put itself in communica-
tion with the school boards and school committees.

The managing board would establish three kinds of
gymnastic meetings — local, provincial, and national —
all of which would be public, and have the character of
public festivals. The local and provincial meetings
might be annual; the national, biennial. The locality
both of the provincial and national meetings should be
regularly changed. These meetings should be for
gymnasts of all grades. At the national meetings the
better gymnasts only of the local societies should take
part in the exercises.

The Central Committee ought always to be well in-
formed of the doings of its various branches, and to
keep up regular communication with the provincial
boards, and these again with the local boards. The
provincial exercises at meetings should be directed by
experts selected respectively by the central or provin-
cial board.

Promotion of Physical Education. 121

Gymnastics have hitherto been looked upon, both by
the public and the teachers, as among the non-essentials
of education. The real advancement of gymnastics
greatly depends upon their general introduction into
schools. Every school board and committee ought,
therefore, to make them obligatory, both in primary
and secondary schools. It is true that the want of
teachers of gymnastics would be a great impediment to
the immediate carrying out of such a regulation. It
might, however, be made to come into operation gradu-
ally. In large towns it could be done at once.

But, in order to make gymnastics a regular branch
of education, there is needed the hearty co-operation of
the teacher. It is the teacher who must learn to ap-
preciate gymnastics, and it is the teacher again who
is the proper person to teach them. He who believes
that a teacher needs only muscular strength and skill
to be able to do this, does not understand the great
pedagogical value of gymnastics. The duties of a
teacher of gymnastics require not only bodily, but also
mental ability. He ought to be able to teach the sub-
ject as a department of intellectual as well as of bodily
training. Instruction in gymnastics should, therefore,
always be given, or at least directed, by a man with a
thoroughly pedagogical education. All teachers ought,
if possible, to be able to teach gymnastics.

But how are they to learn it ? By the establishing
of gymnasia in all the training colleges, and of special
training gymnasia for teachers in all large towns. Such
a plan could be best carried out by a National Associa-
tion. The chief instructors in such training gymnasia

122 On Physical Education,

ought to be men with a thorough general education —
men who have studied anatomy, physiology, and
hygiene. They must be able to adapt their teaching
according to age and sex, and to regulate it according
to anatomical and physiological laws. Lectures on
anatomy and physiology, specially adapted to gym-
nastic exercises, should be given in such training
gymnasia, by well- qualified medical men.

The above remarks apply to female as well as to male
teachers. Gymnastics for girls and women would be
better taught by female teachers. The latter would,
moreover, be better able to remove the prejudices or
objections of mothers.

In universities gymnastics should be taught most
completely, both theoretically and practically, with
lectures on the various branches of the art, and on their
physical effects.

Thus, we should have gymnasia in every primary and
secondary school and university; and, besides, a Na-
tional Association, the object of which would be to
form gymnastic clubs in every part of the country,
and to watch and control physical education in
general.

A great difficulty in the way of the introduction
of gymnastics is the want of spacious open places in the
vicinity of school-houses. The school boards and com-
mittees should therefore decree that in connexion with
every school-house, whether for girls or boys, there
should be an open place, offering plenty of space for the
setting up of gymnastic apparatus, and for games;
and not open places only, but also halls, that the

Promotion of Physical Education, 123

^exercises might not be interrupted in winter or bad
weather.

One large gymnasium in a small town might suffice
for the schools and clubs of the neighbourhood ; and in
case of need, a large school-room might be used in ad-
dition for certain exercises.

At school inspections equal attention should be paid
to gymnastics with other branches of education, and
that not separately nor by special inspectors. At
school examinations, again, gymnastics should take an
equal place, and marks be awarded for them, as is the
case in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich.
Teachers wishing to obtain diplomas should be required
to pass an examination in the theory and, if possible,
in the practice of gymnastics. The most important step
towards a general introduction of gymnastics is to obtain
a good class of teachers of them, who have been thoroughly
educated, not only physically, but also mentally.

Is it Utopian to hope that what has once been might
be again — namely, that public gymnasia might, in the
course of time, become the places where all classes
congregate ; where popular lectures are listened to ;
where artists, especially sculptors, not only exhibit
their works, but make their studies, like their great
predecessors among the Greeks? Where could they
find better models? Thus, the public gymnasium
might be the most effective means for training up youth
to common political action, and for extinguishing the
spirit of caste. Gymnastics and music are, in Plato's
State, the means of education. Thus the ancient philo-
sopher proposed to unite sternness and softness, to

K

1 24 On Physical Edttcation.

strengthen both mind and body, and to render both-
susceptible of harmony. It would seem, then, that the
consciousness of this symmetrical human culture is the
crowning piece of Philosophy. In Germany many
gymnastic and singing clubs have joined hands, and,
thus entered upon the path which the greatest
thinker of antiquity has indicated as the only one
leading to happiness. What a blessing a similar
union would be to thousands in this country, especially
in the manufacturing towns, where work, work, work,
is the lifelong fate of most, without any elevating,,
cheering pause.

THE END.

•RINTED BY BALLANTYNE AND HANSON
LONDON AND EDINBURGH

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